Correlation between glycosylation of flagellin proteins and sensitivity of flagellar filaments to Triton X-100 in methanogens

The archaeal flagellum: a different kind of prokaryotic motility structure

The archaeal flagellum is a unique motility apparatus distinct in composition and likely in assembly from the bacterial flagellum. Gene families comprised of multiple flagellin genes co-transcribed with a number of conserved, archaeal-specific accessory genes have been identified in several archaea. However, no homologues of any bacterial genes involved in flagella structure have yet been identified in any archaeon, including those archaea in which the complete genome sequence has been published. Archaeal flagellins possess a highly conserved hydrophobic N-terminal sequence that is similar to that of type IV pilins and clearly unlike that of bacterial flagellins. Also unlike bacterial flagellins but similar to type IV pilins, archaeal flagellins are initially synthesized with a short leader peptide that is cleaved by a membrane-located peptidase. With recent advances in genetic transfer systems in archaea, knockouts have been reported in several genes involved in flagellation in different archaea. In addition, techniques to isolate flagella with attached hook and anchoring structures have been developed. Analysis of these preparations is under way to identify minor structural components of archaeal flagella. This and the continued isolation and characterization of flagella mutants should lead to significant advances in our knowledge of the composition and assembly of archaeal flagella.

Hyperthermophilic enzymes: sources, uses, and molecular mechanisms for thermostability

Enzymes synthesized by hyperthermophiles (bacteria and archaea with optimal growth temperatures of > 80 degrees C), also called hyperthermophilic enzymes, are typically thermostable (i.e., resistant to irreversible inactivation at high temperatures) and are optimally active at high temperatures. These enzymes share the same catalytic mechanisms with their mesophilic counterparts. When cloned and expressed in mesophilic hosts, hyperthermophilic enzymes usually retain their thermal properties, indicating that these properties are genetically encoded. Sequence alignments, amino acid content comparisons, crystal structure comparisons, and mutagenesis experiments indicate that hyperthermophilic enzymes are, indeed, very similar to their mesophilic homologues. No single mechanism is responsible for the remarkable stability of hyperthermophilic enzymes. Increased thermostability must be found, instead, in a small number of highly specific alterations that often do not obey any obvious traffic rules. After briefly discussing the diversity of hyperthermophilic organisms, this review concentrates on the remarkable thermostability of their enzymes. The biochemical and molecular properties of hyperthermophilic enzymes are described. Mechanisms responsible for protein inactivation are reviewed. The molecular mechanisms involved in protein thermostabilization are discussed, including ion pairs, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bridges, packing, decrease of the entropy of unfolding, and intersubunit interactions. Finally, current uses and potential applications of thermophilic and hyperthermophilic enzymes as research reagents and as catalysts for industrial processes are described.

Structure of the Na+-driven flagellum from the homoacetogenic bacterium Acetobacterium woodii

The Na+-dependent flagellum of Acetobacterium woodii was characterised. Flagellin and whole flagella were purified and analysed by SDS-PAGE and electron microscopy. The structure and dimensions of the filament and the hook-basal body, as revealed by electron microscopy, resemble those of H+-dependent flagella from gram-positive bacteria. Intramembrane particle rings were present at the cell pole in freeze-fractured A. woodii cells, which might correspond to the mot complex.

Isolation and characterization of flagella and flagellin proteins from the Thermoacidophilic archaea Thermoplasma volcanium and Sulfolobus shibatae

Isolated flagellar filaments of Sulfolobus shibatae were 15 nm in diameter, and they were composed of two major flagellins which have M(r)s of 31,000 and 33,000 and which stained positively for glycoprotein. The flagellar filaments of Thermoplasma volcanium were 12 nm in diameter and were composed of one major flagellin which has an M(r) of 41,000 and which also stained positively for glycoprotein. N-terminal amino acid sequencing indicated that 18 of the N-terminal 20 amino acid positions of the 41-kDa flagellin of T. volcanium were identical to those of the Methanococcus voltae 31-kDa flagellin. Both flagellins of S. shibatae had identical amino acid sequences for at least 23 of the N-terminal positions. This sequence was least similar to any of the available archaeal flagellin sequences, consistent with the phylogenetic distance of S. shibatae from the other archaea studied.

Physical characterization of the flagella and flagellins from Methanospirillum hungatei

Flagellar filaments from Methanospirillum hungatei GP1 and JF1 were isolated and subjected to a variety of physical and chemical treatments. The filaments were stable to temperatures up to 80 degrees C and over the pH range of 4 to 10. The flagellar filaments were dissociated in the detergents (final concentration of 0.5%) Triton X-100, Tween 20, Tween 80, Brij 58, N-octylglucoside, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, and Zwittergent 3-14, remaining intact in only two of the detergents tested, sodium deoxycholate and 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)-dimethyl-ammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS). Spheroplasting techniques were used to separate the internal cells from the complex sheath, S-layer (cell wall), and end plugs of M. hungatei. The flagellar basal structure was visualized after solubilization of membranes by CHAPS or deoxycholate. The basal structure appeared to be a simple knob with no apparent ring or hook structures. The multiple, glycosylated flagellins constituting the flagellar filaments were cleaved by proteases and cyanogen bromide. The cyanogen bromide-generated fragments of M. hungatei GP1 flagellins were partially sequenced to provide internal sequence information. In addition, the amino acid composition of each flagellin was determined and indicated that the flagellins are distinct gene products, rather than differentially glycosylated forms of the same gene product.