DivIVA uses an N-terminal conserved region and two coiled-coil domains to localize and sustain the polar growth inCorynebacterium glutamicum

Cell Wall Biogenesis During Elongation and Division in the Plant Pathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens

A great diversity of bacterial cell shapes can be found in nature, suggesting that cell wall biogenesis is regulated both spatially and temporally. Although Agrobacterium tumefaciens has a rod-shaped morphology, the mechanisms underlying cell growth are strikingly different than other well-studied rod-shaped bacteria including Escherichia coli. Technological advances, such as the ability to deplete essential genes and the development of fluorescent D-amino acids, have enabled recent advances in our understanding of cell wall biogenesis during cell elongation and division of A. tumefaciens. In this review, we address how the field has evolved over the years by providing a historical overview of cell elongation and division in rod-shaped bacteria. Next, we summarize the current understanding of cell growth and cell division processes in A. tumefaciens. Finally, we highlight the need for further research to answer key questions related to the regulation of cell wall biogenesis in A. tumefaciens.

Quantitative Proteomic Analysis Reveals Changes in the Benchmark Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis Biovar Equi Exoproteome after Passage in a Murine Host

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis biovar equi is the etiologic agent of ulcerative lymphangitis. To investigate proteins that could be related to the virulence of this pathogen, we combined an experimental passage process using a murine model and high-throughput proteomics with a mass spectrometry, data-independent acquisition (LC-MS^E) approach to identify and quantify the proteins released into the supernatants of strain 258_equi. To our knowledge, this approach allowed characterization of the exoproteome of a C. pseudotuberculosis equi strain for the first time. Interestingly, the recovery of this strain from infected mouse spleens induced a change in its virulence potential, and it became more virulent in a second infection challenge. Proteomic screening performed from culture supernatant of the control and recovered conditions revealed 104 proteins that were differentially expressed between the two conditions. In this context, proteomic analysis of the recovered condition detected the induction of proteins involved in bacterial pathogenesis, mainly related to iron uptake. In addition, KEGG enrichment analysis showed that ABC transporters, bacterial secretion systems and protein export pathways were significantly altered in the recovered condition. These findings show that secretion and secreted proteins are key elements in the virulence and adaptation of C. pseudotuberculosis. Collectively, bacterial pathogenesis-related proteins were identified that contribute to the processes of adherence, intracellular growth and evasion of the immune system. Moreover, this study enhances our understanding of the factors that may influence the pathogenesis of C. pseudotuberculosis.

Interaction sites of DivIVA and RodA from Corynebacterium glutamicum

Elongation growth in actinobacteria is localized at the cell poles. This is in contrast to many classical model organisms where insertion of new cell wall material is localized around the lateral site. We previously described a role of RodA from Corynebacterium glutamicum in apical cell growth and morphogenesis. Deletion of rodA had drastic effects on morphology and growth, likely a result from misregulation of penicillin-binding proteins and cell wall precursor delivery. We identified the interaction of RodA with the polar scaffold protein DivIVA, thus explaining subcellular localization of RodA to the cell poles. In this study, we describe this interaction in detail and map the interaction sites of DivIVA and RodA. A single amino acid residue in the N-terminal domain of DivIVA was found to be crucial for the interaction with RodA. The interaction site of RodA was mapped to its cytoplasmic, C-terminal domain, in a region encompassing the last 10 amino acids (AAs). Deletion of these 10 AAs significantly decreased the interaction efficiency with DivIVA. Our results corroborate the interaction of DivIVA and RodA, underscoring the important role of DivIVA as a spatial organizer of the elongation machinery in Corynebacterineae.

Biological consequences and advantages of asymmetric bacterial growth

Asymmetries in cell growth and division occur in eukaryotes and prokaryotes alike. Even seemingly simple and morphologically symmetric cell division processes belie inherent underlying asymmetries in the composition of the resulting daughter cells. We consider the types of asymmetry that arise in various bacterial cell growth and division processes, which include both conditionally activated mechanisms and constitutive, hardwired aspects of bacterial life histories. Although asymmetry disposes some cells to the deleterious effects of aging, it may also benefit populations by efficiently purging accumulated damage and rejuvenating newborn cells. Asymmetries may also generate phenotypic variation required for successful exploitation of variable environments, even when extrinsic changes outpace the capacity of cells to sense and respond to challenges. We propose specific experimental approaches to further develop our understanding of the prevalence and the ultimate importance of asymmetric bacterial growth.

Protein-protein interaction domains of Bacillus subtilis DivIVA

DivIVA proteins are curvature-sensitive membrane binding proteins that recruit other proteins to the poles and the division septum. They consist of a conserved N-terminal lipid binding domain fused to a less conserved C-terminal domain. DivIVA homologues interact with different proteins involved in cell division, chromosome segregation, genetic competence, or cell wall synthesis. It is unknown how DivIVA interacts with these proteins, and we used the interaction of Bacillus subtilis DivIVA with MinJ and RacA to investigate this. MinJ is a transmembrane protein controlling division site selection, and the DNA-binding protein RacA is crucial for chromosome segregation during sporulation. Initial bacterial two-hybrid experiments revealed that the C terminus of DivIVA appears to be important for recruiting both proteins. However, the interpretation of these results is limited since it appeared that C-terminal truncations also interfere with DivIVA oligomerization. Therefore, a chimera approach was followed, making use of the fact that Listeria monocytogenes DivIVA shows normal polar localization but is not biologically active when expressed in B. subtilis. Complementation experiments with different chimeras of B. subtilis and L. monocytogenes DivIVA suggest that MinJ and RacA bind to separate DivIVA domains. Fluorescence microscopy of green fluorescent protein-tagged RacA and MinJ corroborated this conclusion and suggests that MinJ recruitment operates via the N-terminal lipid binding domain, whereas RacA interacts with the C-terminal domain. We speculate that this difference is related to the cellular compartments in which MinJ and RacA are active: the cell membrane and the cytoplasm, respectively.

Regulation of apical growth and hyphal branching in Streptomyces

The filamentous bacteria Streptomyces grow by tip extension and through the initiation of new branches, and this apical growth is directed by a polarisome-like complex involving the essential polarity protein DivIVA. New branch sites must be marked de novo and, until recently, there was no understanding of how these new sites are selected. Equally, hyphal branching patterns are affected by environmental conditions, but there was no insight into how polar growth and hyphal branching might be regulated in response to external or internal cues. This review focuses on recent discoveries that reveal the principal mechanism of branch site selection in Streptomyces, and the first mechanism to be identified that regulates polarisome behaviour to modulate polar growth and hyphal branching.

Cytoskeletal proteins of actinobacteria

Although bacteria are considered the simplest life forms, we are now slowly unraveling their cellular complexity. Surprisingly, not only do bacterial cells have a cytoskeleton but also the building blocks are not very different from the cytoskeleton that our own cells use to grow and divide. Nonetheless, despite important advances in our understanding of the basic physiology of certain bacterial models, little is known about Actinobacteria, an ancient group of Eubacteria. Here we review current knowledge on the cytoskeletal elements required for bacterial cell growth and cell division, focusing on actinobacterial genera such as Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium, and Streptomyces. These include some of the deadliest pathogens on earth but also some of the most prolific producers of antibiotics and antitumorals.

Polarity and the diversity of growth mechanisms in bacteria

Bacterial cell growth is a complex process consisting of two distinct phases: cell elongation and septum formation prior to cell division. Although bacteria have evolved several different mechanisms for cell growth, it is clear that tight spatial and temporal regulation of peptidoglycan synthesis is a common theme. In this review, we discuss bacterial cell growth with a particular emphasis on bacteria that utilize tip extension as a mechanism for cell elongation. We describe polar growth among diverse bacteria and consider the advantages and consequences of this mode of cell elongation.

Features critical for membrane binding revealed by DivIVA crystal structure

DivIVA is a conserved protein in Gram-positive bacteria that localizes at the poles and division sites, presumably through direct sensing of membrane curvature. DivIVA functions as a scaffold and is vital for septum site selection during vegetative growth and chromosome anchoring during sporulation. DivIVA deletion causes filamentous growth in Bacillus subtilis, whereas overexpression causes hyphal branching in Streptomyces coelicolor. We have determined the crystal structure of the N-terminal (Nt) domain of DivIVA, and show that it forms a parallel coiled-coil. It is capped with two unique crossed and intertwined loops, exposing hydrophobic and positively charged residues that we show here are essential for membrane binding. An intragenic suppressor introducing a positive charge restores membrane binding after mutating the hydrophobic residues. We propose that the hydrophobic residues insert into the membrane and that the positively charged residues bind to the membrane surface. A low-resolution crystal structure of the C-terminal (Ct) domain displays a curved tetramer made from two parallel coiled-coils. The Nt and Ct parts were then merged into a model of the full length, 30 nm long DivIVA protein.

Domains involved in the in vivo function and oligomerization of apical growth determinant DivIVA in Streptomyces coelicolor

The coiled-coil protein DivIVA is a determinant of apical growth and hyphal branching in Streptomyces coelicolor. We have investigated the properties of this protein and the involvement of different domains in its essential function and subcellular targeting. In S. coelicolor cell extracts, DivIVA was present as large oligomeric complexes that were not strongly membrane associated. The purified protein could self-assemble into extensive protein filaments in vitro. Two large and conspicuous segments in the amino acid sequence of streptomycete DivIVAs not present in other homologs, an internal PQG-rich segment and a carboxy-terminal extension, are shown to be dispensable for the essential function in S. coelicolor. Instead, the highly conserved amino-terminal of 22 amino acids was required and affected establishment of new DivIVA foci and hyphal branches, and an essential coiled-coil domain affected oligomerization of the protein.