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Katzenmeyer KN, Szott LM, Bryers JD. Artificial opsonin enhances bacterial phagocytosis, oxidative burst and chemokine production by human neutrophils. Pathog Dis 2018; 75:3934653. [PMID: 28859309 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we describe the application of an 'artificial opsonin' to stimulate the innate immune response against Gram-positive bacteria. The artificial opsonin comprises a poly(L-lysine)-graft-poly(ethylene glycol) backbone displaying multiple copies of vancomycin and human IgG-Fc. The vancomycin targets bacteria by recognizing d-Ala-d-Ala-terminated peptides present in the bacterial cell wall. The human IgG-Fc antibody fragments serve as phagocyte recognition moieties that recognize the Fcγ cell surface receptors expressed by professional human phagocytes. Staphylococcus epidermidis RP62A, a biofilm-forming, methicillin-resistant strain, was utilized to investigate the effects of opsonization on phagocytosis, oxidative burst and IL-8 chemokine production by human neutrophils. Results show that opsonization of S. epidermidis RP62A with the artificial opsonin resulted in an ∼2-fold increase in neutrophil phagocytosis. Analysis of the cell supernatant found a 2- to 3-fold increase in neutrophil IL-8 secretion. The neutrophil oxidative burst was investigated using the oxidation-sensitive fluorophore dihydrorhodamine-123. Bacterial opsonization resulted in a 20% increase in fluorescence intensity, indicating a significant increase in the production of reactive oxygen species by the neutrophils. These studies suggest that artificial opsonins may be a novel immunostimulation therapeutic strategy to control infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, particularly those that are known to be immune evasive and/or antibiotic resistant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy N Katzenmeyer
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, 3720 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Luisa M Szott
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, 3720 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - James D Bryers
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, 3720 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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Sabaté Brescó M, Harris LG, Thompson K, Stanic B, Morgenstern M, O'Mahony L, Richards RG, Moriarty TF. Pathogenic Mechanisms and Host Interactions in Staphylococcus epidermidis Device-Related Infection. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1401. [PMID: 28824556 PMCID: PMC5539136 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is a permanent member of the normal human microbiota, commonly found on skin and mucous membranes. By adhering to tissue surface moieties of the host via specific adhesins, S. epidermidis is capable of establishing a lifelong commensal relationship with humans that begins early in life. In its role as a commensal organism, S. epidermidis is thought to provide benefits to human host, including out-competing more virulent pathogens. However, largely due to its capacity to form biofilm on implanted foreign bodies, S. epidermidis has emerged as an important opportunistic pathogen in patients receiving medical devices. S. epidermidis causes approximately 20% of all orthopedic device-related infections (ODRIs), increasing up to 50% in late-developing infections. Despite this prevalence, it remains underrepresented in the scientific literature, in particular lagging behind the study of the S. aureus. This review aims to provide an overview of the interactions of S. epidermidis with the human host, both as a commensal and as a pathogen. The mechanisms retained by S. epidermidis that enable colonization of human skin as well as invasive infection, will be described, with a particular focus upon biofilm formation. The host immune responses to these infections are also described, including how S. epidermidis seems to trigger low levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and high levels of interleukin-10, which may contribute to the sub-acute and persistent nature often associated with these infections. The adaptive immune response to S. epidermidis remains poorly described, and represents an area which may provide significant new discoveries in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Sabaté Brescó
- Musculoskeletal Infection, AO Research Institute DavosDavos, Switzerland.,Molecular Immunology, Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research, University of ZurichDavos, Switzerland
| | - Llinos G Harris
- Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical SchoolSwansea, United Kingdom
| | - Keith Thompson
- Musculoskeletal Infection, AO Research Institute DavosDavos, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Stanic
- Musculoskeletal Infection, AO Research Institute DavosDavos, Switzerland
| | - Mario Morgenstern
- Department of Orthopedic and Trauma Surgery, University Hospital BaselBasel, Switzerland
| | - Liam O'Mahony
- Molecular Immunology, Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research, University of ZurichDavos, Switzerland
| | - R Geoff Richards
- Musculoskeletal Infection, AO Research Institute DavosDavos, Switzerland
| | - T Fintan Moriarty
- Musculoskeletal Infection, AO Research Institute DavosDavos, Switzerland
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Ivarsson M, Schollin J, Björkqvist M. Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus trigger different interleukin-8 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in lung cells: implications for inflammatory complications following neonatal sepsis. Acta Paediatr 2013; 102:1010-6. [PMID: 23845107 DOI: 10.1111/apa.12350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM Staphylococci are a major contribution for neonatal sepsis, which is the main risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. This study investigated the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators in endothelial and respiratory cells from newborns exposed to staphylococci. METHODS Human vascular endothelial cells and small airway epithelial cells were incubated with neonatal blood isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis (n = 14) and Staphylococcus aureus (n = 14). The extracellular release of IL-8, IL-10, sICAM-1, ICAM-1 mRNA and the expression of membrane bound ICAM-1 were assessed by ELISA, RT-PCR and immunofluorescence microscopy. RESULTS Staphylococcus epidermidis induced higher levels of IL-8 (mean 38.5 ng/mL) and ICAM-1 mRNA (mean ratio 1.037) in the small airway epithelial cells than S. aureus (IL-8 mean 22.2 ng/mL, p < 0.01 and ICAM-1 mRNA mean ratio 0.715, p < 0.01). In the endothelial cells, ICAM-1 remained more integrated in the cell membranes after exposure to S. epidermidis compared with S. aureus, which induced disintegration and release of soluble ICAM-1 into the supernatants. CONCLUSION Staphylococcus epidermidis induced a higher chemoattractive response than S. aureus. A persistent transmigration of granulocytes into the lung tissue in neonatal S. epidermidis sepsis might contribute to the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jens Schollin
- School of Health and Medical Sciences; Örebro University; Örebro; Sweden
| | - Maria Björkqvist
- Department of Paediatrics Örebro University Hospital; Örebro; Sweden
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Bonnefont CMD, Toufeer M, Caubet C, Foulon E, Tasca C, Aurel MR, Bergonier D, Boullier S, Robert-Granié C, Foucras G, Rupp R. Transcriptomic analysis of milk somatic cells in mastitis resistant and susceptible sheep upon challenge with Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:208. [PMID: 21527017 PMCID: PMC3096985 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The existence of a genetic basis for host responses to bacterial intramammary infections has been widely documented, but the underlying mechanisms and the genes are still largely unknown. Previously, two divergent lines of sheep selected for high/low milk somatic cell scores have been shown to be respectively susceptible and resistant to intramammary infections by Staphylococcus spp. Transcriptional profiling with an 15K ovine-specific microarray of the milk somatic cells of susceptible and resistant sheep infected successively by S. epidermidis and S. aureus was performed in order to enhance our understanding of the molecular and cellular events associated with mastitis resistance. Results The bacteriological titre was lower in the resistant than in the susceptible animals in the 48 hours following inoculation, although milk somatic cell concentration was similar. Gene expression was analysed in milk somatic cells, mainly represented by neutrophils, collected 12 hours post-challenge. A high number of differentially expressed genes between the two challenges indicated that more T cells are recruited upon inoculation by S. aureus than S. epidermidis. A total of 52 genes were significantly differentially expressed between the resistant and susceptible animals. Further Gene Ontology analysis indicated that differentially expressed genes were associated with immune and inflammatory responses, leukocyte adhesion, cell migration, and signal transduction. Close biological relationships could be established between most genes using gene network analysis. Furthermore, gene expression suggests that the cell turn-over, as a consequence of apoptosis/granulopoiesis, may be enhanced in the resistant line when compared to the susceptible line. Conclusions Gene profiling in resistant and susceptible lines has provided good candidates for mapping the biological pathways and genes underlying genetically determined resistance and susceptibility towards Staphylococcus infections, and opens new fields for further investigation.
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Harwood DT, Darlow BA, Cheah FC, McNeill N, Graham P, Winterbourn CC. Biomarkers of neutrophil-mediated glutathione and protein oxidation in tracheal aspirates from preterm infants: association with bacterial infection. Pediatr Res 2011; 69:28-33. [PMID: 20924318 DOI: 10.1203/pdr.0b013e3181ff2378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is associated with neutrophil infiltration into the lungs and oxidative injury. However, the pathological importance of neutrophil oxidants is still not clear. Nosocomial pneumonia is also implicated, but the evidence is limited, in part because of the difficulty of distinguishing genuine infection from bacterial colonization. Good biomarkers of neutrophil oxidant activity and lung infection are needed. We tested whether glutathione sulfonamide, a product of glutathione oxidation by myeloperoxidase-derived hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and a potential new neutrophil oxidant biomarker, is detectable in endotracheal aspirates from ventilated preterm infants. As infectious organisms stimulate neutrophils to generate HOCl, we determined whether levels of HOCl-specific biomarkers were increased in samples that were bacterial culture positive. Glutathione sulfonamide was detected in 66 of 87 endotracheal aspirate samples. Levels correlated with myeloperoxidase activity and another HOCl-specific marker, chlorotyrosine. Median levels of glutathione sulfonamide (4-fold) and other biomarkers (2-fold) were significantly higher in culture positive aspirates. Staphylococcus epidermidis, a frequent colonizer, was associated with glutathione sulfonamide levels no different from those in negative samples. Glutathione sulfonamide showed good sensitivity and specificity for detecting bacterial growth and has promise for detecting lung infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Tim Harwood
- Departments of Pathology, University of Otago Christchurch, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
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Staphylococcal PknB as the first prokaryotic representative of the proline-directed kinases. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9057. [PMID: 20140229 PMCID: PMC2816222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2009] [Accepted: 01/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotic cell types, virtually all cellular processes are under control of proline-directed kinases and especially MAP kinases. Serine/threonine kinases in general were originally considered as a eukaryote-specific enzyme family. However, recent studies have revealed that orthologues of eukaryotic serine/threonine kinases exist in bacteria. Moreover, various pathogenic species, such as Yersinia and Mycobacterium, require serine/threonine kinases for successful invasion of human host cells. The substrates targeted by bacterial serine/threonine kinases have remained largely unknown. Here we report that the serine/threonine kinase PknB from the important pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is released into the external milieu, which opens up the possibility that PknB does not only phosphorylate bacterial proteins but also proteins of the human host. To identify possible human targets of purified PknB, we studied in vitro phosphorylation of peptide microarrays and detected 68 possible human targets for phosphorylation. These results show that PknB is a proline-directed kinase with MAP kinase-like enzymatic activity. As the potential cellular targets for PknB are involved in apoptosis, immune responses, transport, and metabolism, PknB secretion may help the bacterium to evade intracellular killing and facilitate its growth. In apparent agreement with this notion, phosphorylation of the host-cell response coordinating transcription factor ATF-2 by PknB was confirmed by mass spectrometry. Taken together, our results identify PknB as the first prokaryotic representative of the proline-directed kinase/MAP kinase family of enzymes.
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Abstract
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) are the most abundant white cell in humans and an essential component of the innate immune system. PMNs are typically the first type of leukocyte recruited to sites of infection or areas of inflammation. Ingestion of microorganisms triggers production of reactive oxygen species and fusion of cytoplasmic granules with forming phagosomes, leading to effective killing of ingested microbes. Phagocytosis of bacteria typically accelerates neutrophil apoptosis, which ultimately promotes the resolution of infection. However, some bacterial pathogens alter PMN apoptosis to survive and thereby cause disease. Herein, we review PMN apoptosis and the ability of microorganisms to alter this important process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Kennedy
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
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Lundqvist H, Dånmark S, Johansson U, Gustafsson H, Ollinger K. Evaluation of electron spin resonance for studies of superoxide anion production by human neutrophils interacting with Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 70:1059-65. [PMID: 17604111 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbbm.2007.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2007] [Revised: 05/03/2007] [Accepted: 05/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The present study evaluates electron spin resonance (ESR) and the spin trapper 5-(diethoxyphosphoryl)-5-methyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DEPMPO) for analysis of superoxide radical production by human neutrophils interacting with viable Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteria. To avoid auto-activation due to interaction with glass surfaces, neutrophils were preincubated in plastic tubes until the peak response was reached, and then transferred to a quartz flat cell to record the ESR spectra. The time point for peak response was identified by parallel analysis of the bacteria-neutrophil interaction using luminol amplified chemiluminescence. We found detectable ESR spectra from neutrophils interacting with as few as five bacteria of the weak activating S. epidermidis per neutrophil. Addition of the NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenylene iodonium totally abolished spectra. Catalase, DMSO or an iron chelator had no impact on the produced spectra and ionomycin, a selective activator of intracellular NADPH oxidase, gave significant ESR spectra. Taken together, our results indicate that DEPMPO is cell permeable and detects NADPH oxidase derived superoxide anions formed in phagosomes or released by human neutrophils phagocytosing viable S. aureus and S. epidermidis. The technique may be used as a sensitive tool to evaluate superoxide anion production in human neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Lundqvist
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Wilsson A, Lind S, Ohman L, Nilsdotter-Augustinsson A, Lundqvist-Setterud H. Apoptotic neutrophils containing Staphylococcus epidermidis stimulate macrophages to release the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 53:126-35. [PMID: 18400011 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2008.00412.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis infections are usually nosocomial and involve colonization of biomaterials. The immune defense system cannot efficiently control the bacteria during these infections, which often results in protracted chronic inflammation, in which a key event is disturbed removal of neutrophils by tissue macrophages. While ingesting uninfected apoptotic neutrophils, macrophages release anti-inflammatory cytokines that lead to resolution of inflammation. In clinical studies, we have previously found elevated levels of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 in synovial fluid from prostheses infected with coagulase negative staphylococci. We show that macrophages phagocytosing apoptotic neutrophils containing S. epidermidis released TNF-alpha and interleukin-6, whereas macrophages phagocytosing spontaneously apoptotic neutrophils did not. This difference was not due to dissimilar phagocytic capacities, because macrophages ingested both types of neutrophils to the same extent. The activation was induced mainly by the apoptotic neutrophils themselves, not by the few remaining extracellular bacteria. Macrophages were not activated by apoptotic neutrophils that contained paraformaldehyde-killed S. epidermidis. Proinflammatory reactions induced by clearance of apoptotic neutrophils containing S. epidermidis might represent an important mechanism to combat the infective agent. This activation of macrophages may contribute to the development of chronic inflammation instead of inflammation resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asa Wilsson
- School of Health Sciences, Jönköping University, Jönköping, Sweden
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Wilkie RP, Vissers MCM, Dragunow M, Hampton MB. A functional NADPH oxidase prevents caspase involvement in the clearance of phagocytic neutrophils. Infect Immun 2007; 75:3256-63. [PMID: 17438039 PMCID: PMC1932946 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01984-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Revised: 02/14/2007] [Accepted: 04/03/2007] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils play a prominent role in host defense. Phagocytosis of bacteria leads to the formation of an active NADPH oxidase complex that generates reactive oxygen species for bactericidal purposes. A critical step in the resolution of inflammation is the uptake of neutrophils by macrophages; however, there are conflicting reports on the mechanisms leading to the apoptosis of phagocytic neutrophils. The aim of this study was to clarify the role of effector caspases in these processes. Caspase activity was measured by DEVDase activity assays or immunofluorescence detection of active caspase-3. With normal human and wild-type murine neutrophils there was no caspase activation following phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus. However, caspase activity was observed in phagocytic neutrophils with a defective NADPH oxidase, including neutrophils isolated from X-linked gp91(phox) knockout chronic granulomatous disease mice. These results indicate that a functional NADPH oxidase and the generation of oxidants in the neutrophil phagosome prevent the activation of the cytoplasmic caspase cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel P Wilkie
- Department of Pathology, Christchurch School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Nilsdotter-Augustinsson A, Claesson C, Lindgren PE, Lundqvist-Gustafsson H, Ohman L. Adherence of Staphylococcus epidermidis to extracellular matrix proteins and effects of fibrinogen-bound bacteria on oxidase activity and apoptosis in neutrophils. APMIS 2005; 113:361-73. [PMID: 16011663 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2005.apm_113508.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis often causes foreign-body infections such as those associated with hip prostheses, but the underlying pathogenic mechanisms are not fully understood. We performed spectrophotometry to study the ability of S. epidermidis to bind to immobilised fibrinogen, fibronectin, vitronectin, and collagen. The strains were isolated from infected hip prostheses or from normal flora and the well-known protein-binding strain Staphylococcus aureus Cowan was used as positive control. We also analysed the interaction between neutrophils and a fibrinogen-bound prosthesis-derived strain of S. epidermidisby measuring chemiluminescence to determine the neutrophil oxidative response and binding of annexin V to indicate neutrophil apoptosis. We found that binding of S. epidermidis to extracellular matrix proteins varied under different growth conditions, and that prosthesis isolates adhered better to vitronectin than did strains from normal flora. The oxidative response caused by fibrinogen-bound S. epidermidis was not above the background level, which was in marked contrast to the distinct response induced by fibrinogen-associated S. aureus Cowan. Furthermore, fibrinogen-adhering S. epidermidis retarded neutrophil apoptosis. We conclude that surface-bound S. epidermidis induces only a weak inflammatory response, which in combination with the ability of the adherent bacteria to retard neutrophil apoptosis may contribute to low-grade inflammation and loosening of prostheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asa Nilsdotter-Augustinsson
- Divisions of Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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