MicroRNAs, new effectors and regulators of NF-κB

MiR-17~92 is involved in NF-κB activation via targeting the ubiquitin-editing proteins to mediate RIP1 complex polyubiquitinations in ABC-DLBCL

Activated B-cell-like diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (ABC-DLBCL) is an aggressive lymphoma characterized by constitutive NF-κB activation, but whether miR-17~92 contributes to this activation remains unclear. Herein, we sought to evaluate the role of miR-17~92 in the process of NF-κB activation in ABC-DLBCL. We found that the expression of miR-17~92 primary transcript was positively correlated with NF-κB activity, miR-17~92 activated the NF-κB signaling in ABC-DLBCL, and its over-expression promoted ABC-DLBCL cell growth, accelerated cell G1 to S phase transition and enhanced cell resistance to NF-κB inhibitor. Importantly, miR-17~92 promoted NF-κB activation through directly targeting multiple ubiquitin-editing regulators to lead to increase the K63-linked polyubiquitination and decrease the K48-linked polyubiquitination of RIP1 complex in ABC-DLBCL. We further found that miR-17~92 selectively activated IκB-α and NF-κB p65 but not NF-κB p52/p100, and high miR-17~92 expression was also associated with poorer outcome in ABC-DLBCL patients. Overall, our results showed that miR-17~92 selectively activated the canonical NF-κB signaling via targeting ubiquitin-editing regulators to lead to constitutively NF-κB activation and poorer outcome in ABC-DLBCL. These findings uncovered an innovative function of miR-17~92 and previously unappreciated regulatory mechanism of NF-κB activation in ABC-DLBCL. Targeting miR-17~92 may thus provide a novel bio-therapeutic strategy for ABC-DLBCL patients.

Characterization of Undiscovered miRNA Involved in Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-Induced Atrophy in Mouse Skeletal Muscle Cell Line

Muscular atrophy is a complex catabolic condition that develops due to several inflammatory-related disorders, resulting in muscle loss. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) is believed to be one of the leading factors that drive inflammatory response and its progression. Until now, the link between inflammation and muscle wasting has been thoroughly investigated, and the non-coding RNA machinery is a potential connection between the candidates. This study aimed to identify specific miRNAs for muscular atrophy induced by TNF-α in the C2C12 murine myotube model. The difference in expression of fourteen known miRNAs and two newly identified miRNAs was recorded by next-generation sequencing between normal muscle cells and treated myotubes. After validation, we confirmed the difference in the expression of one novel murine miRNA (nov-mmu-miRNA-1) under different TNF-α-inducing conditions. Functional bioinformatic analyses of nov-mmu-miRNA-1 revealed the potential association with inflammation and muscle atrophy. Our results suggest that nov-mmu-miRNA-1 may trigger inflammation and muscle wasting by the downregulation of LIN28A/B, an anti-inflammatory factor in the let-7 family. Therefore, TNF-α is involved in muscle atrophy through the modulation of the miRNA cellular machinery. Here, we describe for the first time and propose a mechanism for the newly discovered miRNA, nov-mmu-miRNA-1, which may regulate inflammation and promote muscle atrophy.

Tuning into miRNAs: A comprehensive analysis of their impact on diagnosis, and progression in asthma

Asthma is a diverse inflammatory illness affecting the respiratory passages, leading to breathing challenges, bouts of coughing and wheezing, and, in severe instances, significant deterioration in quality of life. Epigenetic regulation, which involves the control of gene expression through processes such as post-transcriptional modulation of microRNAs (miRNAs), plays a role in the evolution of various asthma subtypes. In immune-mediated diseases, miRNAs play a regulatory role in the behavior of cells that form the airway structure and those responsible for defense mechanisms in the bronchi and lungs. They control various cellular processes such as survival, growth, proliferation, and the production of chemokines and immune mediators. miRNAs possess chemical and biological characteristics that qualify them as suitable biomarkers for diseases. They allow for the categorization of patients to optimize drug selection, thus streamlining clinical management and decreasing both the economic burden and the necessity for critical care related to the disease. This study provides a concise overview of the functions of miRNAs in asthma and elucidates their regulatory effects on the underlying processes of the disease. We provide a detailed account of the present status of miRNAs as biomarkers for categorizing asthma, identifying specific asthma subtypes, and selecting appropriate treatment options.

Disparate macrophage responses are linked to infection outcome of Hantan virus in humans or rodents

Hantaan virus (HTNV) is asymptomatically carried by rodents, yet causes lethal hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in humans, the underlying mechanisms of which remain to be elucidated. Here, we show that differential macrophage responses may determine disparate infection outcomes. In mice, late-phase inactivation of inflammatory macrophage prevents cytokine storm syndrome that usually occurs in HTNV-infected patients. This is attained by elaborate crosstalk between Notch and NF-κB pathways. Mechanistically, Notch receptors activated by HTNV enhance NF-κB signaling by recruiting IKKβ and p65, promoting inflammatory macrophage polarization in both species. However, in mice rather than humans, Notch-mediated inflammation is timely restrained by a series of murine-specific long noncoding RNAs transcribed by the Notch pathway in a negative feedback manner. Among them, the lnc-ip65 detaches p65 from the Notch receptor and inhibits p65 phosphorylation, rewiring macrophages from the pro-inflammation to the pro-resolution phenotype. Genetic ablation of lnc-ip65 leads to destructive HTNV infection in mice. Thus, our findings reveal an immune-braking function of murine noncoding RNAs, offering a special therapeutic strategy for HTNV infection.

Therapeutic effects of combining curcumin and swimming in osteoarthritis using a rat model

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common debilitating degenerative disease of the elderly. We aimed to study the therapeutic effects of combining curcumin and swimming in monosodium iodoacetate (MIA)-induced OA in a rat model. The rats were divided into 5 groups (n = 9). Group 1 received saline and served as a control group. Groups 2-5 were injected intra-articularly in the right knee with 100 μL MIA. One week later, groups 3 and 5 were started on daily swimming sessions that gradually increased to 20-mins per session, and for groups 4 and 5, oral curcumin was administered at a dose of 200 mg/kg for 4 weeks. The combination therapy (curcumin + swimming) showed the most effective results in alleviating pain and joint stiffness as well as improving histological and radiological osteoarthritis manifestations in the knee joints. The combination modality also reduced serum C-reactive protein and tissue cartilage oligomeric matrix protein levels. Mechanistically, rats received dual treatment exhibited restoration of miR-130a and HDAC3 expression. The dual treatment also upregulated PPAR-γ alongside downregulation of NF-κB and its inflammatory cytokine targets TNF-α and IL-1β. Additionally, there was downregulation of MMP1 and MMP13 in the treated rats. In conclusion, our data showed that there is a therapeutic potential for combining curcumin with swimming in OA, which is attributed, at least in part, to the modulation of miR-130a/HDAC3/PPAR-γ signaling axis.

MiRNA-146a-A Key Player in Immunity and Diseases

miRNA-146a, a single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecule, has emerged as a valuable diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for numerous pathological conditions. Its primary function lies in regulating inflammatory processes, haemopoiesis, allergic responses, and other key aspects of the innate immune system. Several studies have indicated that polymorphisms in miRNA-146a can influence the pathogenesis of various human diseases, including autoimmune disorders and cancer. One of the key mechanisms by which miRNA-146a exerts its effects is by controlling the expression of certain proteins involved in critical pathways. It can modulate the activity of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase, IRAK1, IRAK2 adaptor proteins, and tumour necrosis factor (TNF) targeting protein receptor 6, which is a regulator of the TNF signalling pathway. In addition, miRNA-146a affects gene expression through multiple signalling pathways, such as TNF, NF-κB and MEK-1/2, and JNK-1/2. Studies have been carried out to determine the effect of miRNA-146a on cancer pathogenesis, revealing its involvement in the synthesis of stem cells, which contributes to tumourigenesis. In this review, we focus on recent discoveries that highlight the significant role played by miRNA-146a in regulating various defence mechanisms and oncogenesis. The aim of this review article is to systematically examine miRNA-146a's impact on the control of signalling pathways involved in oncopathology, immune system development, and the corresponding response to therapy.

Pathogenesis of allergic diseases and implications for therapeutic interventions

Allergic diseases such as allergic rhinitis (AR), allergic asthma (AAS), atopic dermatitis (AD), food allergy (FA), and eczema are systemic diseases caused by an impaired immune system. Accompanied by high recurrence rates, the steadily rising incidence rates of these diseases are attracting increasing attention. The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex and involves many factors, including maternal-fetal environment, living environment, genetics, epigenetics, and the body's immune status. The pathogenesis of allergic diseases exhibits a marked heterogeneity, with phenotype and endotype defining visible features and associated molecular mechanisms, respectively. With the rapid development of immunology, molecular biology, and biotechnology, many new biological drugs have been designed for the treatment of allergic diseases, including anti-immunoglobulin E (IgE), anti-interleukin (IL)-5, and anti-thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP)/IL-4, to control symptoms. For doctors and scientists, it is becoming more and more important to understand the influencing factors, pathogenesis, and treatment progress of allergic diseases. This review aimed to assess the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic interventions of allergic diseases, including AR, AAS, AD, and FA. We hope to help doctors and scientists understand allergic diseases systematically.

Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Osteoporosis: Molecular Mechanisms Involved and the Relationship with microRNAs

Osteoporosis is characterized by the alteration of bone homeostasis due to an imbalance between osteoclastic bone resorption and osteoblastic bone formation. Estrogen deficiency causes bone loss and postmenopausal osteoporosis, the pathogenesis of which also involves oxidative stress, inflammatory processes, and the dysregulation of the expression of microRNAs (miRNAs) that control gene expression at post-transcriptional levels. Oxidative stress, due to an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), proinflammatory mediators and altered levels of miRNAs enhance osteoclastogenesis and reduce osteoblastogenesis through mechanisms involving the activation of MAPK and transcription factors. The present review summarizes the principal molecular mechanisms involved in the role of ROS and proinflammatory cytokines on osteoporosis. Moreover, it highlights the interplay among altered miRNA levels, oxidative stress, and an inflammatory state. In fact, ROS, by activating the transcriptional factors, can affect miRNA expression, and miRNAs can regulate ROS production and inflammatory processes. Therefore, the present review should help in identifying targets for the development of new therapeutic approaches to osteoporotic treatment and improve the quality of life of patients.

miR-582-5p targets Skp1 and regulates NF-κB signaling-mediated inflammation

A well-tuned inflammatory response is crucial for an effective immune process. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is a key mediator of inflammatory and innate immunity responses, and its dysregulation is closely associated with immune-related diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important inflammation modulators. However, miRNA-regulated mechanisms that implicate NF-κB activity are not fully understood. This study aimed to identify a potential miRNA that could modulate the dysregulated NF-κB signaling during inflammation. We identified miR-582-5p that was significantly downregulated in inflamed murine adipose tissues and RAW264.7 cells. S-phase kinase-associated protein 1 (SKP1), a core component of an E3 ubiquitin ligase that regulates the NF-κB pathway, was proposed as a biological target of miR-582-5p by using TargetScan. The binding of miR-582-5p to a 3'-untranslated region site on Skp1 was confirmed using a dual-luciferase reporter assay; in addition, transfection with a miR-582-5p mimic suppressed SKP1 expression in RAW264.7 cells. Importantly, exogenous miR-582-5p attenuated the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta, and interleukin-6 through suppressing the degradation of the NF-κB inhibitor alpha, followed by the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Therefore, exogenously applied miR-582-5p can attenuate the NF-κB signaling pathway via targeting Skp1; this provides a prospective therapeutic strategy for treating inflammatory and immune diseases.

Expression of the miR-9-5p, miR-125b-5p and its target gene NFKB1 and TRAF6 in childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE)

Childhood- onset systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE) is a multisystem inflammatory disease that can lead to severe clinical conditions resulting in early comorbidities. Several genetic, environmental, and immunological factors are known to influence the onset of the disease. MiRNAs have been already considered as potential actors involved in the development and activity of the SLE. Thus, understanding the behavior of these regulators can contribute to clarify the inflammatory process affecting SLE patients. Among miRNAs, miR-125b-5p and miR-9-5p targeting NFKB1 and TRAF6 genes can be involved in the etio-pathogenesis of the disease by modulating inflammation. In this study we evaluated miR-9-5p and miR-125b-5p expression and its target genes NFKB1 and TRAF6 in peripheral blood samples (PBMC) from the 35 cSLE patients and 35 healthy controls. MiRNAs and gene target expression have been evaluated by using RT-PCR with specific TaqMan® probes. Both miR-9-5p [Fold Change (FC) = -2.21; p = 0.002] and miR-125b-5p (FC= -3.30; p < 0.0001) and NFKB1 (FC = -1.84; p < 0.001) were downregulated in cSLE patients, while TRAF6 was upregulated (FC = 1.80; p = 0.006) in cSLE patients when compared to controls. A significant correlation was found between miR-125b-5p and its target gene NFKB1 [Spearman (r) = 0.47; p = 0.023]. Our results showed miR-125b-5p and miR-9-5p differential expression in cSLE patients, possibly contributing to better understanding the role of these regulators in cSLE development and disease pathogenesis.

Regulation of T-independent B-cell responses by microRNA-146a

The microRNA, miR-146a, is a negative feedback regulator of the central immune transcription factor, nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB). MiR-146a plays important roles in the immune system, and miR-146a deficient mice show a complex phenotype with features of chronic inflammation and autoimmune disease. In this study, we examined the role of miR-146a in extrafollicular B-cell responses, finding that miR-146a suppresses cellular responses in vivo and in vitro. Gene expression profiling revealed that miR-146a-deficient B-cells showed upregulation of interferon pathway genes, including Traf6, a known miR-146a target. We next interrogated the role of TRAF6 in these B-cell responses, finding that TRAF6 is required for proliferation by genetic and pharmacologic inhibition. Together, our findings demonstrate a novel role for miR-146a and TRAF6 in the extrafollicular B-cell responses, which have recently been tied to autoimmune disease pathogenesis. Our work highlights the pathogenetic role of miR-146a and the potential of pharmacologic inhibition of TRAF6 in autoimmune diseases in which miR-146a is deregulated.

Exosomes Derived from microRNA-21 Overexpressing Neural Progenitor Cells Prevent Hearing Loss from Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Mice via Inhibiting the Inflammatory Process in the Cochlea

Both exosomes derived from neural progenitor cells (NPCs) can suppress inflammation. Whether exosomes derived from miR-21-transfected NPCs (miR-21-Exo) could be utilized to alleviate hearing loss is investigated. NPCs were transfected with lentiviral vectors overexpressing miR-21, and miR-21-Exo was purified. Morphology and exosome membrane markers were examined with nanoparticle tracking analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and Western blot. After incubation with different concentrations of miR-21-Exo, the viability of RAW 264.7 cells and the relative expressions of miR-21 and IL-10 were determined. The ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) model of C57BL/6 J mice was constructed, and the treatment benefit of miR-21-Exo was revealed by the auditory brainstem response (ABR) test. Immunofluorescence staining of caspase-3 and parvalbumin was used to detect apoptosis hair cells in the cochlea, and Western blot was utilized to detect the relative expressions of P53 and inflammatory cytokines in the cochlea. Isolated exosomes were confirmed by the size of 96 ± 25 nm, single membrane, and positive expression of CD9 and Tsg101. Upregulated miR-21 expression was detected in miR-21-transfected NPCs and miR-21-Exo. miR-21-Exo incubation demonstrated no cytotoxicity but upregulated miR-21 and IL-10 expressions in RAW 264.7 cells. The administration of miR-21-Exo inhibited the increased ABR threshold under 8, 16, and 32 kHz frequencies in cochlea-I/R injury mice and diminished the mean fluorescent intensity of caspase-3/parvalbumin. Moreover, miR-21-Exo treatment increased the IL-10 expression and prevented the increased TNF-α and IL-1β expressions in the cochlea of I/R mice both in mRNA and protein levels. Inner ear administration of miR-21-Exo effectively improved hearing damage caused by I/R.

MicroRNAs: master regulators in host-parasitic protist interactions

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a group of small non-coding RNAs present in a wide diversity of organisms. MiRNAs regulate gene expression at a post-transcriptional level through their interaction with the 3' untranslated regions of target mRNAs, inducing translational inhibition or mRNA destabilization and degradation. Thus, miRNAs regulate key biological processes, such as cell death, signal transduction, development, cellular proliferation and differentiation. The dysregulation of miRNAs biogenesis and function is related to the pathogenesis of diseases, including parasite infection. Moreover, during host-parasite interactions, parasites and host miRNAs determine the probability of infection and progression of the disease. The present review is focused on the possible role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of diseases of clinical interest caused by parasitic protists. In addition, the potential role of miRNAs as targets for the design of drugs and diagnostic and prognostic markers of parasitic diseases is also discussed.

miR-126-3p and miR-21-5p as Hallmarks of Bio-Positive Ageing; Correlation Analysis and Machine Learning Prediction in Young to Ultra-Centenarian Sicilian Population

Human ageing can be characterized by a profile of circulating microRNAs (miRNAs), which are potentially predictors of biological age. They can be used as a biomarker of risk for age-related inflammatory outcomes, and senescent endothelial cells (ECs) have emerged as a possible source of circulating miRNAs. In this paper, a panel of four circulating miRNAs including miR-146a-5p, miR-126-3p, miR-21-5p, and miR-181a-5p, involved in several pathways related to inflammation, and ECs senescence that seem to be characteristic of the healthy ageing phenotype. The circulating levels of these miRNAs were determined in 78 healthy subjects aged between 22 to 111 years. Contextually, extracellular miR-146a-5p, miR-126-3p, miR-21-5p, and miR-181a-5p levels were measured in human ECs in vitro model, undergoing senescence. We found that the levels of the four miRNAs, using ex vivo and in vitro models, progressively increase with age, apart from ultra-centenarians that showed levels comparable to those measured in young individuals. Our results contribute to the development of knowledge regarding the identification of miRNAs as biomarkers of successful and unsuccessful ageing. Indeed, they might have diagnostic/prognostic relevance for age-related diseases.

miRNome Profiling Detects miR-101-3p and miR-142-5p as Putative Blood Biomarkers of Frailty Syndrome

Frailty is an aging-related pathology, defined as a state of increased vulnerability to stressors, leading to a limited capacity to meet homeostatic demands. Extracellular microRNAs (miRNAs) were proposed as potential biomarkers of various disease conditions, including age-related pathologies. The primary objective of this study was to identify blood miRNAs that could serve as potential biomarkers and candidate mechanisms of frailty. Using the Fried index, we enrolled 22 robust and 19 frail subjects. Blood and urine samples were analysed for several biochemical parameters. We observed that sTNF-R was robustly upregulated in the frail group, indicating the presence of an inflammatory state. Further, by RNA-seq, we profiled 2654 mature miRNAs in the whole blood of the two groups. Expression levels of selected differentially expressed miRNAs were validated by qPCR, and target prediction analyses were performed for the dysregulated miRNAs. We identified 2 miRNAs able to significantly differentiate frail patients from robust subjects. Both miR-101-3p and miR-142-5p were found to be downregulated in the frail vs. robust group. Finally, using bioinformatics targets prediction tools, we explored the potential molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways regulated by the two miRNAs and potentially involved in frailty.

Emerging Roles of Non-Coding RNAs in Childhood Asthma

Asthma is a chronic airway inflammatory disease in children characterized by airway inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness and airway remodeling. Childhood asthma is usually associated with allergy and atopy, unlike adult asthma, which is commonly associated with obesity, smoking, etc. The pathogenesis and diagnosis of childhood asthma also remains more challenging than adult asthma, such as many diseases showing similar symptoms may coexist and be confused with asthma. In terms of the treatment, although most childhood asthma can potentially be self-managed and controlled with drugs, approximately 5-10% of children suffer from severe uncontrolled asthma, which carries significant health and socioeconomic burdens. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the pathogenesis of childhood asthma from a new perspective. Studies have revealed that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are involved in the regulation of respiratory diseases. In addition, altered expression of ncRNAs in blood, and in condensate of sputum or exhalation affects the progression of asthma via regulating immune response. In this review, we outline the regulation and pathogenesis of asthma and summarize the role of ncRNAs in childhood asthma. We also hold promise that ncRNAs may be used for the development of biomarkers and support a new therapeutic strategy for childhood asthma.

HOTAIR Up-Regulation Activates NF-κB to Induce Immunoescape in Gliomas

Background

Checkpoint blockade therapies targeting programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and its receptor programmed cell death 1 promote T cell-mediated immune surveillance against tumors and have been associated with significant clinical benefit in cancer patients. The long-stranded non-coding RNA HOTAIR is highly expressed and associated with metastasis in a variety of cancer types and promotes tumor metastasis at least in part through association with the PRC2 complex that induces redirection to hundreds of genes involved in tumor metastasis. Here, we report that HOTAIR is an activator lncRNA of the NF-κB pathway and demonstrate that its apparent upregulation promotes inflammatory signaling and immune escape in glioma cells.

Methods

Bioinformatics analysis was used to elucidate the relationship between HOTAIR and NF-κB pathway in HOTAIR knockdown glioma cells. At the cytological level, protein hybridization and immunofluorescence were used to detect the response of proteins in the NF-κB signaling pathway to HOTAIR regulation. ChIP and ChIRP experiments identified HOTAIR target genes. Animal experiments verified alterations in inflammation and immune escape following HOTAIR knockdown and activity inhibition.

Results

HOTAIR activated the expression of proteins involved in NF-κB, TNFα, MAPK and other inflammatory signaling pathways. In addition, HOTAIR induced various proteins containing protein kinase structural domains and promoted the enrichment of proteins and complexes of important inflammatory signaling pathways, such as the TNFα/NF-κB signaling protein complex, the IκB kinase complex, and the IKKA-IKKB complex. In addition, HOTAIR aberrantly activated biological processes involved in glioma immune responses, T-cell co-stimulation and transcription initiation by RNA polymerase II. HOTAIR facilitated the induction of IκBα phosphorylation by suppressing the expression of the NF-κB upstream protein UBXN1, promoting NF-κB phosphorylation and nuclear translocation. In vivo, reduction of HOTAIR decreased PD-L1 protein expression, indicating that cells are more likely to be targeted by immune T cells.

Conclusion

In conclusion, our results provide convincing evidence that lncRNA HOTAIR drives aberrant gene transcription and immune escape from tumor cells through the NF-κB pathway.

The Potential Role of miRNAs in Cognitive Frailty

Frailty is an aging related condition, which has been defined as a state of enhanced vulnerability to stressors, leading to a limited capacity to meet homeostatic demands. Cognitive impairment is also frequent in older people, often accompanying frailty. Age is the main independent risk factor for both frailty and cognitive impairment, and compelling evidence suggests that similar age-associated mechanisms could underlie both clinical conditions. Accordingly, it has been suggested that frailty and cognitive impairment share common pathways, and some authors proposed "cognitive frailty" as a single complex phenotype. Nevertheless, so far, no clear common underlying pathways have been discovered for both conditions. microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as key fine-tuning regulators in most physiological processes, as well as pathological conditions. Importantly, miRNAs have been proposed as both peripheral biomarkers and potential molecular factors involved in physiological and pathological aging. In this review, we discuss the evidence linking changes of selected miRNAs expression with frailty and cognitive impairment. Overall, miR-92a-5p and miR-532-5p, as well as other miRNAs implicated in pathological aging, should be investigated as potential biomarkers (and putative molecular effectors) of cognitive frailty.

Structural changes and expression of hepatic fibrosis-related proteins in coculture of Echinococcus multilocularis protoscoleces and human hepatic stellate cells

Background

Echinococcus multilocularis is the causative agent of human hepatic alveolar echinococcosis (AE). AE can cause damage to several organs, primarily the liver, and have severe outcomes, such as hepatic failure and encephalopathy. The main purpose of this study was to explore the interactions between hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and E. multilocularis protoscoleces (PSCs). The results of this study provide an experimental basis for further examination of the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrosis due to AE infection.

Methods

We investigated the role of Echinococcus multilocularis (Echinococcus genus) PSCs in hepatic fibrosis by examining structural changes and measuring hepatic fibrosis-related protein levels in cocultures of PSCs and human HSCs. Structural changes were detected by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and levels of the hepatic fibrosis-related proteins collagen I (Col-I), alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and osteopontin (OPN) were measured by western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results

Under coculture (1) both PSCs and HSCs exhibited morphological changes, as observed by TEM; (2) Col-I, α-SMA, and OPN expression levels, which were determined by western blotting and ELISA, significantly increased after 3 days of incubation.

Conclusions

The results of this study provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of AE-induced hepatic fibrosis.

Graphical abstract

Exosome: Function and Application in Inflammatory Bone Diseases

In the skeletal system, inflammation is closely associated with many skeletal disorders, including periprosthetic osteolysis (bone loss around orthopedic implants), osteoporosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. These diseases, referred to as inflammatory bone diseases, are caused by various oxidative stress factors in the body, resulting in long-term chronic inflammatory processes and eventually causing disturbances in bone metabolism, increased osteoclast activity, and decreased osteoblast activity, thereby leading to osteolysis. Inflammatory bone diseases caused by nonbacterial factors include inflammation- and bone resorption-related processes. A growing number of studies show that exosomes play an essential role in developing and progressing inflammatory bone diseases. Mechanistically, exosomes are involved in the onset and progression of inflammatory bone disease and promote inflammatory osteolysis, but specific types of exosomes are also involved in inhibiting this process. Exosomal regulation of the NF-κB signaling pathway affects macrophage polarization and regulates inflammatory responses. The inflammatory response further causes alterations in cytokine and exosome secretion. These signals regulate osteoclast differentiation through the receptor activator of the nuclear factor-kappaB ligand pathway and affect osteoblast activity through the Wnt pathway and the transcription factor Runx2, thereby influencing bone metabolism. Overall, enhanced bone resorption dominates the overall mechanism, and over time, this imbalance leads to chronic osteolysis. Understanding the role of exosomes may provide new perspectives on their influence on bone metabolism in inflammatory bone diseases. At the same time, exosomes have a promising future in diagnosing and treating inflammatory bone disease due to their unique properties.

Current understanding of epigenetics in atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is an inflammatory skin disorder affecting up to 20% of the paediatric population worldwide. AD patients commonly exhibit dry skin and pruritus and are at a higher risk for developing asthma as well as allergic rhinitis. Filaggrin loss‐of‐function variants are the most widely replicated genetic risk factor among >40 genes associated with AD susceptibility. The prevalence of AD has tripled in the past 30 years in industrial countries around the world. This urgent public health issue has prompted the field to more thoroughly investigate the mechanisms that underlie AD pathogenesis amidst environmental exposures. Epigenetics is the study of heritable, yet reversible, modifications to the genome that affect gene expression. The past decade has seen an emergence of exciting studies identifying a role for epigenetic regulation associated with AD and at the interface of environmental factors. Such epigenetic studies have been empowered by sequencing technologies and human genome variation and epigenome maps. miRNAs that post‐transcriptionally modify gene expression and circRNAs have also been discovered to be associated with AD. Here, we review our current understanding of epigenetics associated with atopic dermatitis. We discuss studies identifying distinct DNA methylation changes in keratinocytes and T cells, eQTLs as DNA methylation switches that impact gene expression, and histone modification changes associated with AD‐related microbial dysbiosis. We further highlight the need for integrative and collaborative analyses to elucidate the impact of these epigenetic findings as potential drivers for AD pathogenesis and the translation of this new knowledge to develop newer targeted treatments.

Altered endothelial dysfunction-related miRs in plasma from ME/CFS patients

Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is a complex disease characterized by unexplained debilitating fatigue. Although the etiology is unknown, evidence supports immunological abnormalities, such as persistent inflammation and immune-cell activation, in a subset of patients. Since the interplay between inflammation and vascular alterations is well-established in other diseases, endothelial dysfunction has emerged as another player in ME/CFS pathogenesis. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) generates nitric oxide (NO) that maintains endothelial homeostasis. eNOS is activated by silent information regulator 1 (Sirt1), an anti-inflammatory protein. Despite its relevance, no study has addressed the Sirt1/eNOS axis in ME/CFS. The interest in circulating microRNAs (miRs) as potential biomarkers in ME/CFS has increased in recent years. Accordingly, we analyze a set of miRs reported to modulate the Sirt1/eNOS axis using plasma from ME/CFS patients. Our results show that miR-21, miR-34a, miR-92a, miR-126, and miR-200c are jointly increased in ME/CFS patients compared to healthy controls. A similar finding was obtained when analyzing public miR data on peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Bioinformatics analysis shows that endothelial function-related signaling pathways are associated with these miRs, including oxidative stress and oxygen regulation. Interestingly, histone deacetylase 1, a protein responsible for epigenetic regulations, represented the most relevant node within the network. In conclusion, our study provides a basis to find endothelial dysfunction-related biomarkers and explore novel targets in ME/CFS.

Therapeutic and prophylactic effects of macrophage-derived small extracellular vesicles in the attenuation of inflammatory pain

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages can induce therapeutically relevant immune responses. Anti-inflammatory miRNAs are elevated in sEVs secreted by RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. We observed uptake of these sEVs by primary mouse cortical neurons, microglia and astrocytes followed by downregulation of proinflammatory miRNA target genes in recipient cells. Pre-treating primary microglia with these sEVs decreased pro-inflammatory gene expression. A single intrathecal injection of sEVs derived from LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 cells attenuated mechanical hyperalgesia in the complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) mouse model of inflammatory pain and formalin induced acute pain. Importantly, sEVs did not alter the normal pain threshold in control mice. RNA sequencing of dorsal horn of the spinal cord showed sEVs-induced modulation of immune regulatory pathways. Further, a single prophylactic intrathecal injection of sEVs two weeks prior, attenuated CFA-induced pain hypersensitivity and was ineffective in formalin model. This indicates that prophylactic sEVs administration can be beneficial in attenuating chronic pain without impacting responses to the protective physiological and acute inflammatory pain. Prophylactic administration of sEVs could form the basis for a safe and novel vaccine-like therapy for chronic pain or as an adjuvant, potentially reducing the dose of drugs needed for pain relief.

Analysis of miRNA and mRNA reveals core interaction networks and pathways of dexamethasone-induced immunosuppression in chicken bursa of Fabricius

Stress-induced immunosuppression is a serious problem affecting the production value of poultry, but its specific molecular mechanism has not yet been elucidated. We selected 7-day-old Gushi cocks as test animals and successfully established a stress-induced immunosuppression model by injecting 2.0 mg/kg (body weight) dexamethasone (Dex). We then constructed six cDNA libraries and two small RNA libraries of Bursa of Fabricius from the control group and the Dex group. RNA-seq results revealed 21,028 transcripts including 3920 novel transcripts; 500 miRNAs including 68 novel miRNAs were identified. Correlation analysis of miRNA, target genes and mRNA results indicated that the gga-miR-15 family, gga-miR-103-3p, gga-miR-456-3p, and gga-miR-27b-3p, as core differentially expressed miRNAs, may potentially regulate multiple genes which are involved in immune-related pathways; and that the core genes Suppressor of IKBKE 1 (SIKE1) and high mobility group AT-hook 2 (HMGA2) are associated with the miR-17 family (gga-miR-20a-5p, gga-miR-20b-5p, gga-miR-106-5p, and gga-miR-17-5p) and gga-let -7 family (gga-let-7b, gga-let-7i, gga-let-7c-5p, and gga-let-7f-5p). The interaction networks of mRNAs of significantly enrichment pathways and PPI (protein-protein interaction) networks showed that IL6, IL1B, IL8L1, CCL5, SOCS3, SOCS1, ITGB5, GSTA3, SQLE, FDFT1, FN1, IL18, IL10, MAPK11 and MAPK12 are network core nodes and that most of them are strongly associated with immune response. One of the candidate miRNAs, gga-miR-20b-5p, may play an important role in stress-induced immunosuppression. Luciferase assay and over-expression experiments suggested that gga-miR-20b-5p negatively regulated the expression of target gene SIKE1. These results provide better understanding of the mechanism of stress-induced immunosuppression in Gushi chicken bursa, and provide novel targets for subsequent research to improve poultry anti-stress capability.

Intestinal proinflammatory macrophages induce a phenotypic switch in interstitial cells of Cajal

Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) are pacemaker cells in the intestine, and their function can be compromised by loss of C-KIT expression. Macrophage activation has been identified in intestine affected by Hirschsprung disease-associated enterocolitis (HAEC). In this study, we examined proinflammatory macrophage activation and explored the mechanisms by which it downregulates C-KIT expression in ICCs in colon affected by HAEC. We found that macrophage activation and TNF-α production were dramatically increased in the proximal dilated colon of HAEC patients and 3-week-old Ednrb-/- mice. Moreover, ICCs lost their C-KIT+ phenotype in the dilated colon, resulting in damaged pacemaker function and intestinal dysmotility. However, macrophage depletion or TNF-α neutralization led to recovery of ICC phenotype and restored their pacemaker function. In isolated ICCs, TNF-α-mediated phosphorylation of p65 induced overexpression of microRNA-221 (miR-221), resulting in suppression of C-KIT expression and pacemaker currents. We also identified a TNF-α/NF-κB/miR-221 pathway that downregulated C-KIT expression in ICCs in the colon affected by HAEC. These findings suggest the important roles of proinflammatory macrophage activation in a phenotypic switch of ICCs, representing a promising therapeutic target for HAEC.

Host transcriptome response to Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato

The host immune response to infection is a well-coordinated system of innate and adaptive immune cells working in concert to prevent the colonization and dissemination of a pathogen. While this typically leads to a beneficial outcome and the suppression of disease pathogenesis, the Lyme borreliosis bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, can elicit an immune profile that leads to a deleterious state. As B. burgdorferi s.l. produces no known toxins, it is suggested that the immune and inflammatory response of the host are responsible for the manifestation of symptoms, including flu-like symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and cognitive disorders. The past several years has seen a substantial increase in the use of microarray and sequencing technologies to investigate the transcriptome response induced by B. burgdorferi s.l., thus enabling researchers to identify key factors and pathways underlying the pathophysiology of Lyme borreliosis. In this review we present the major host transcriptional outcomes induced by the bacterium across several studies and discuss the overarching theme of the host inflammatory and immune response, and how it influences the pathology of Lyme borreliosis.

Memory T cells of patients with abdominal aortic aneurysm differentially expressed micro RNAs 21, 92a, 146a, 155, 326 and 663 in response to Helicobacter pylori and Lactobacillus acidophilus

Regarding the role of micro RNAs (miRNA) in the proliferation and differentiation of T cells as well as the controversy around the role of bacteria in the pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), the effects of Helicobacter pylori (Hp) and Lactobacillus acidophilus (La) were investigated in the induction of miRNAs and apoptosis in CD4+ memory T (Tem) cells of AAA patients and controls. Signature atherosclerosis miRNAs 21, 92a, 146a, 155, 326 and 663 were measured in the sera and tissues of AAA patients and control. PBMCs separately and in co-culture with HUVEC were treated with Hp-water-extract (HpWE) and La-conditioned-medium (LaCM). Apoptosis and miRNA levels were assessed in the isolated Tem by flowcytometry and real-time-PCR. In single-culture, HpWE increased apoptosis and miR-155 and LaCM decreased apoptosis and increased miR-21. In co-culture, apoptosis decreased in both groups in response to CagA+HpWE. Also, all miRNAs increased in patients Tem but in controls, only miR- 146a and 21 showed changes. Although, apoptosis was similar in Tem of patients and controls, the effects of Hp and La were different on the induction of apoptosis and miRNAs and also these bacteria showed different impacts in single and co-culture conditions. Beyond the direct effects of these bacteria on the pathogenesis of diseases, their effects on miRNAs expression may shed light on their roles in the development and the prevention of AAA.

Upregulation of miR-9 and miR-193b over human Th17 cell differentiation

BACKGROUND

Th17 cells are a newly discovered subset of CD4⁺ T cells known as key participants in various immune responses and inflammatory conditions including autoimmune diseases. Mi(cro)RNAs are a family of non-coding RNAs that regulate numerous critical immune functions. Immuno-miRNAs modulate cell biological processes in T cells, such as differentiation and function of Th17 cells. The aim of the present study is to investigate the expression of miR-9-5p, miR-193b-3p, and autoimmunity-related genes during human Th17 cells differentiation.

METHODS

Human naïve CD4⁺ T cells were purified from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by magnetic cell sorting system (MACS) and their purity was checked by flow-cytometric analysis. Naïve CD4⁺ T cells were cultured under Th17-polarizing condition for 6 days. IL- 17 secretion was determined by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Next, the expression levels of miRNAs and putative targets genes were assessed by qRT-PCR at different time points of differentiation.

RESULTS

Our result showed dramatic downregulation of TCF7, MAP3K1, ENTPD1, and NT5E genes during human Th17 differentiation. Polarization also had a significant inducible effect on the expression of miR-9 and miR-193b over differentiation of human Th17 cells. According to our results, miR-9-5p and miR-193b-3p may contribute to Th17 differentiation probably by inhibiting the expression of negative regulators of Th17 differentiation.

CONCLUSION

This study confirmed deregulation of TCF7, MAP3K1, ENTPD1, and NT5E genes in Th17 differentiation process and introduced miR-9 and miR-193b as Th17 cell-associated miRNAs, making them good candidates for further investigations.

Glycine-Histidine-Lysine (GHK) Alleviates Astrocytes Injury of Intracerebral Hemorrhage via the Akt/miR-146a-3p/AQP4 Pathway

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a major type of cerebrovascular disease with poor prognosis. Recent studies have shown that Glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine (GHK) is a kind of natural human tripeptide which could inhibit inflammation and against neurodegenerative diseases, but neither its role nor the mechanisms in ICH have yet been explicit. Currently, we investigated the possible strategies of GHK on ICH injury. Neurological deficit scores, brain water content, Nissl staining, and aquaporin 4 (AQP4) immunohistochemistry were detected in different groups of rats. The expression of microRNAs (miRNAs) was examined by real-time PCR. Inflammatory factors were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Cell viability and cell proliferation were detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). Matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), MMP9, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP1), AQP4 expression were detected/assessed using western blot. We observed that 5 and 10 μg/g of GHK improved neurological recovery by significantly reducing brain water content, improving neurological deficits, and promoting neuron survival. Besides, GHK alleviated inflammatory reaction and downregulated AQP4 expression. Furthermore, the effects of GHK on astrocyte were associated with the upregulation of miRNA-146a-3p, which partially regulated the expression of AQP4. Our results demonstrated that the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway participated in the GHK-induced upregulation of miR-146a-3p and miR-146a-3p/AQP4 interaction plays a role in the injury following ICH. These findings suggested that GHK could provide a novel therapeutic strategy for ICH.

Progesterone Receptor Signaling Selectively Modulates Cytokine-Induced Global Gene Expression in Human Cervical Stromal Cells

Preterm birth (PTB) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in infants <1 year of age. Intrauterine inflammation is a hallmark of preterm and term parturition; however, this alone cannot fully explain the pathobiology of PTB. For example, the cervix undergoes a prolonged series of biochemical and biomechanical events, including extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and mechanochemical changes, culminating in ripening. Vaginal progesterone (P₄) prophylaxis demonstrates great promise in preventing PTB in women with a short cervix (<25 mm). We used a primary culture model of human cervical stromal fibroblasts to investigate gene expression signatures in cells treated with interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in the presence or absence of P₄ following 17β-estradiol (17β-E₂) priming for 7–10 days. Microarrays were used to measure global gene expression in cells treated with cytokine or P₄ alone or in combination, followed by validation of select transcripts by semiquantitative polymerase chain reactions (qRT-PCR). Primary/precursor (MIR) and mature microRNAs (miR) were quantified by microarray and NanoString^® platforms, respectively, and validated by qRT-PCR. Differential gene expression was computed after data normalization followed by pathway analysis using Kyoto Encyclopedia Genes and Genomes (KEGG), Panther, Gene Ontology (GO), and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) upstream regulator algorithm tools. Treatment of fibroblasts with IL-1β alone resulted in the differential expression of 1432 transcripts (protein coding and non-coding), while P₄ alone led to the expression of only 43 transcripts compared to untreated controls. Cytokines, chemokines, and their cognate receptors and prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 (PTGS-2) were among the most highly upregulated transcripts following either IL-1β or IL-1β + P₄. Other prominent differentially expressed transcripts were those encoding ECM proteins, ECM-degrading enzymes, and enzymes involved in glycosaminoglycan (GAG) biosynthesis. We also detected differential expression of bradykinin receptor-1 and -2 transcripts, suggesting (prominent in tissue injury/remodeling) a role for the kallikrein–kinin system in cervical responses to cytokine and/or P₄ challenge. Collectively, this global gene expression study provides a rich database to interrogate stromal fibroblasts in the setting of a proinflammatory and endocrine milieu that is relevant to cervical remodeling/ripening during preparation for parturition.

Identification of stress-related microRNA biomarkers in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Many studies have investigated microRNAs (miRNAs) in the detection of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Herein, the dysregulated direction of stress-related miRNAs used as biomarkers of T2DM are summarized and analyzed.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE, ISI Web of Science, and three Chinese databases were searched for case-control miRNA profiling studies about T2DM. A meta-analysis under a random effect was performed. Subgroup analysis was conducted based on different tissues and species. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to confirm the robustness among studies. The effect size was pooled using ln odds ratios (ORs), 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), and P-values.

RESULTS

The present meta-analysis included 39 case-control studies with a total of 494 miRNAs. Only 33 miRNAs were reported in three or more studies and, of these, 18 were inconsistent in their direction of dysregulation. Two significantly dysregulated miRNAs (let-7 g and miR-155) were identified in the meta-analysis. Four miRNAs (miR-142-3p, miR-155, miR-21, and miR-34c-5p) were dysregulated in patients with T2DM, whereas five miRNAs (miR-146a, miR-199a-3p, miR-200b, miR-29b and miR-30e) were dysregulated in animal models of diabetes. In addition, two dysregulated miRNAs (miR-146a and miR-21) were highly cornea specific and heart specific. In sensitivity analysis, only miR-155 was still significantly dysregulated after removing studies with small sample sizes.

CONCLUSIONS

The present meta-analysis revealed that 16 stress-related miRNAs were significantly dysregulated in T2DM. MiR-148b, miR-223, miR-130a, miR-19a, miR-26b and miR-27b were selected as potential circulating biomarkers of T2DM. In addition, miR-146a and miR-21 were identified as potential tissue biomarkers of T2DM.

Association of miR-146a rs57095329 with Behçet's disease and its complications

BACKGROUND

Behçet's disease is a chronic relapsing and remitting autoimmune multisystem inflammatory disease characterised by oral aphthae, genital ulcers, skin lesions, gastrointestinal involvement, arthritis, vascular lesions and neurological manifestations. We hypothesised a link between rs57095329 of miR-146a and Behçet's disease, with further links with common clinical features.

METHODS

We tested our hypothesis in 130 Behçet's disease patients and 131 age and sex-matched healthy controls. Behcet's disease current activity index (BDCAI) was used to assess patients' disease activity status. MiR-146a (rs57095329) was genotyped in all participants using RT-PCR and results in patients analysed according to clinical features.

RESULTS

The frequency of the GG and AG genotypes in rs57095329 were strongly associated with Behçet's disease (adjusted OR 8.05, 95% CI 3.63-17.82; P < 0.001 and OR 2.26, 95% CI 1.27-4.04; P = 0.006, respectively), and in dominant (GG+AG > AA) and recessive (GG > AA+AG) models (both P < 0.001). Additionally, G allele distribution was significantly greater in Behçet's disease compared with controls (OR 2.85, 95% CI 1.98-4.11, P < 0.001). The AA genotype and A allele were linked to oral ulcers, the GG genotype and G allele to neurological disease, and the GG genotype and G allele to ocular disease (all P < 0.01). There were no links with genital ulceration, skin lesions, vascular disease or the result of the pathergy test.

CONCLUSION

The miR-146a (rs57095329) is associated with Behçet's disease and certain genotypes and alleles with oral ulcers, and with ocular and neurological manifestations.

LncRNA-zinc finger protein 281 downregulates rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1 by upregulating miR-144 in osteosarcoma

Zinc finger protein 281 (ZNF281) has been characterized as a tumor suppressive lncRNA in glioma. The present study aimed to analyze the functionality of ZNF281 in osteosarcoma (OS). It was demonstrated that ZNF281 was downregulated in OS tissue specimens and predicted the survival of patients with OS. In tissues from patients with OS, ZNF281 was negatively associated with rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1 (ROCK1), but positively associated with miR-144. In the U2OS cell line, ZNF281 overexpression mediated the upregulation of miR-44 and downregulation of ROCK1. miR-144 overexpression led to the downregulation of ROCK1, but failed to affect ZNF281. Expression of ZNF281 and miR-144 resulted in decreased cell migration and invasion, while ROCK1 overexpression resulted in increased invasion and migration of OS cells. In addition, ROCK1 overexpression attenuated the effects of ZNF281 and miR-144 overexpression. Thus, ZNF281 may downregulate ROCK1 by upregulating miR-144 and inhibit cancer cell invasion and migration in OS.

Functional analyses of miRNA-146b-5p during myogenic proliferation and differentiation in chicken myoblasts

Background

In the poultry and livestock industries, precise genetic information is crucial for improving economic traits. Thus, functional genomic studies help to generate faster, healthier, and more efficient animal production. Chicken myoblast cells, which are required for muscle development and regeneration, are particularly important because chicken growth is closely related to muscle mass.

Results

In this study, we induced expression of microRNA-146b-5p mediated by the piggyBac transposon system in primary chicken myoblast (pCM) cells. Subsequently, we analyzed and compared the proliferation and differentiation capacity and also examined the expression of related genes in regular pCM (rpCM) cells and pCM cells overexpressing miRNA-146b-5p (pCM-146b OE cells). pCM-146b OE cells showed increased proliferation and upregulated gene expression related to cell proliferation. In addition, next-generation sequencing analyses were performed to compare global gene expression patterns between rpCM cells and pCM-146b OE cells. We found that the higher proliferation in pCM-146b OE cells was the result of upregulation of gene sets related to the cell cycle. Moreover, miRNA-146b-5p overexpression had inhibitory effects on myotube differentiation in pCM cells.

Conclusions

Collectively these results demonstrate that miR-146b-5p is closely related to the proliferation and differentiation of chicken myogenic cells as a modulator of post-transcription.

Myeloid cell-targeted miR-146a mimic inhibits NF-κB-driven inflammation and leukemia progression in vivo

NF-κB is a key regulator of inflammation and cancer progression, with an important role in leukemogenesis. Despite its therapeutic potential, targeting NF-κB using pharmacologic inhibitors has proven challenging. Here, we describe a myeloid cell-selective NF-κB inhibitor using an miR-146a mimic oligonucleotide conjugated to a scavenger receptor/Toll-like receptor 9 agonist (C-miR146a). Unlike an unconjugated miR146a, C-miR146a was rapidly internalized and delivered to the cytoplasm of target myeloid cells and leukemic cells. C-miR146a reduced expression of classic miR-146a targets (IRAK1 and TRAF6), thereby blocking activation of NF-κB in target cells. IV injections of C-miR146a mimic to miR-146a-deficient mice prevented excessive NF-κB activation in myeloid cells, and thus alleviated myeloproliferation and mice hypersensitivity to bacterial challenge. Importantly, C-miR146a showed efficacy in dampening severe inflammation in clinically relevant models of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome. Systemic administration of C-miR146a oligonucleotide alleviated human monocyte-dependent release of IL-1 and IL-6 in a xenotransplanted B-cell lymphoma model without affecting CD19-specific CAR T-cell antitumor activity. Beyond anti-inflammatory functions, miR-146a is a known tumor suppressor commonly deleted or expressed at reduced levels in human myeloid leukemia. Using The Cancer Genome Atlas acute myeloid leukemia data set, we found an inverse correlation of miR-146a levels with NF-κB-related genes and with patient survival. Correspondingly, C-miR146a induced cytotoxic effects in human MDSL, HL-60, and MV4-11 leukemia cells in vitro. The repeated IV administration of C-miR146a inhibited expression of NF-κB target genes and thereby thwarted progression of disseminated HL-60 leukemia. Our results show the potential of using myeloid cell-targeted miR-146a mimics for the treatment of inflammatory and myeloproliferative disorders.

The NF-κB/miR-425-5p/MCT4 axis: A novel insight into diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction

Endothelial cells (ECs) primarily rely on glycolysis for their energy metabolism, and the final product of glycolysis-lactate-is transferred out of cells via monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4). We previously showed that MCT4 downregulation is involved in diabetic endothelial injury. However, the underlying regulatory mechanisms of MCT4 in diabetes remain unclear. This study showed that miR-425-5p was significantly upregulated in diabetic patients and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) treated with high glucose (HG) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). MCT4 was shown to be a direct target gene of miR-425-5p, and miR-425-5p expression led to MCT4 downregulation, lactate accumulation and increased apoptosis in HUVECs. Furthermore, the results indicated that NF-κB signaling activation increased miR-425-5p levels and induced MCT4 downregulation, lactate accumulation and apoptosis in HUVECs. In conclusion, NF-κB/miR-425-5p/MCT4 axis activation plays a crucial role in the EC injury induced by HG and IL-1β.

Upregulation of miR-335-3p by NF-κB Transcriptional Regulation Contributes to the Induction of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension via APJ during Hypoxia

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a cardiopulmonary disease that can lead to heart failure and eventually death. MicroRNAs (miRs) play essential roles during PAH progression; however, their exact mechanism of action remains unclear. Apelin is a small bioactive peptide with a key protective function in the pathogenesis of PAH mediated by binding to the APJ gene. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of miR-335-3p in chronic normobaric hypoxia (CNH)-induced PAH in mice and the potential underlying regulatory mechanism. Adult male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to normoxia (~21% O₂) or CNH (~10% O₂, 23 h/d) for 5 weeks. MiR-335-3p was significantly increased in lung tissue of CNH-induced PAH mice. Blocking miR-335-3p attenuated CNH-induced PAH and alleviated pulmonary vascular remodeling. Bioinformatics analysis and luciferase reporter assay indicated that nuclear factor-kappa beta (NF-κB) acted as a transcriptional regulator upstream of miR-335-3p. Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate treatment reversed the CNH-induced increase in miR-335-3p expression and diminished CNH-induced PAH. Moreover, p50^-/- mice were resistant to CNH-induced PAH. Finally, APJ was identified as a direct targeting gene downstream of miR-335-3p, and pharmacological activation of APJ by its ligand apelin-13 reduced CNH-induced PAH and improved pulmonary vascular remodeling. Our results indicate that NF-κB-mediated transcriptional upregulation of miR-335-3p contributes to the inhibition of APJ and induction of PAH during hypoxia; hence, miR-335-3p could be a potential therapeutic target for hypoxic PAH.

NF-κB and MicroRNA Deregulation Mediated by HTLV-1 Tax and HBZ

The risk of developing adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) in individuals infected with human T-cell lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1) is about 3–5%. The mechanisms by which the virus triggers this aggressive cancer are still an area of intensive investigation. The viral protein Tax-1, together with additional regulatory proteins, in particular HTLV-1 basic leucine zipper factor (HBZ), are recognized as relevant viral factors required for both viral replication and transformation of infected cells. Tax-1 deregulates several cellular pathways affecting the cell cycle, survival, and proliferation. The effects of Tax-1 on the NF-κB pathway have been thoroughly studied. Recent studies also revealed the impact of Tax-1 and HBZ on microRNA expression. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in understanding the contribution of HTLV-1 Tax- and HBZ-mediated deregulation of NF-κB and the microRNA regulatory network to HTLV-1 pathogenesis.

Mapping Research in the Obesity, Adipose Tissue, and MicroRNA Field: A Bibliometric Analysis

Recent studies have investigated the control of adipose tissue expansion and inflammatory process by microRNAs (miRNAs). These two processes are of great interest because both are associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome. However, despite the great relevance of the role of miRNAs in obesity and adipose tissue, no qualitative and quantitative analysis on the subject has been performed. Thus, we aimed to examine global research activity and current trends with respect to the interaction between obesity, adipose tissue and miRNAs through a bibliometric analysis. This research was performed on the Scopus database for publications containing miRNA, obesity, and adipose tissue keyword combinations. In total, 898 articles were analyzed and the most frequently occurring keywords were selected and clustered into three well-defined groups. As a result, first group of keywords pointed to the research area on miRNAs expressed in obesity-associated diseases. The second group demonstrated the regulation of the adipogenesis process by miRNAs, while the third group highlighted brown adipose tissue and thermogenesis as one of the latest global research trends related to the theme. The studies selected in this paper describe the expression and performance of different miRNAs in obesity and comorbidities. Most studies have focused on identifying miRNAs and signaling pathways associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. Thus, the miRNA profile for these diseases may be used as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in the prevention and treatment of obesity-associated diseases.

From Endogenous to Synthetic microRNA-Mediated Regulatory Circuits: An Overview

MicroRNAs are short non-coding RNAs that are evolutionarily conserved and are pivotal post-transcriptional mediators of gene regulation. Together with transcription factors and epigenetic regulators, they form a highly interconnected network whose building blocks can be classified depending on the number of molecular species involved and the type of interactions amongst them. Depending on their topology, these molecular circuits may carry out specific functions that years of studies have related to the processing of gene expression noise. In this review, we first present the different over-represented network motifs involving microRNAs and their specific role in implementing relevant biological functions, reviewing both theoretical and experimental studies. We then illustrate the recent advances in synthetic biology, such as the construction of artificially synthesised circuits, which provide a controlled tool to test experimentally the possible microRNA regulatory tasks and constitute a starting point for clinical applications.

Long non-coding RNAs and nuclear factor-κB crosstalk in cancer and other human diseases

The regulation of the pleiotropic transcription factor, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) by miRNAs and proteins is extensively studied. More recently, the NF-κB signaling was also reported to be regulated by several long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) that constitute the major portion of the noncoding component of the human genome. The common NF-κB associated lncRNAs include NKILA, HOTAIR, MALAT1, ANRIL, Lethe, MIR31HG, and PACER. The lncRNA and NF-κB signaling crosstalk during cancer and other diseases such as cardiomyopathy, celiac disease, cerebral infarction, chronic kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, Kawasaki disease, pregnancy loss, and rheumatoid arthritis. Some NF-κB related lncRNAs can affect gene expression without modulating NF-κB signaling. Most of the lncRNAs with a potential to modulate NF-κB signaling are regulated by NF-κB itself suggesting a feedback regulation. The discovery of lncRNAs have provided a new type of regulation for the NF-κB signaling and thus could be explored for therapeutic interventions. The manner in which lncRNA and NF-κB crosstalk affects human pathophysiology is discussed in this review. The challenges associated with the therapeutic interventions of this crosstalk are also discussed.

Epigenetic Regulation of Inflammatory Cytokine-Induced Epithelial-To-Mesenchymal Cell Transition and Cancer Stem Cell Generation

The neoplastic transformation of normal to metastatic cancer cells is a complex multistep process involving the progressive accumulation of interacting genetic and epigenetic changes that alter gene function and affect cell physiology and homeostasis. Epigenetic changes including DNA methylation, histone modifications and changes in noncoding RNA expression, and deregulation of epigenetic processes can alter gene expression during the multistep process of carcinogenesis. Cancer progression and metastasis through an ‘invasion–metastasis cascade’ involving an epithelial-to-mesenchymal cell transition (EMT), the generation of cancer stem cells (CSCs), invasion of adjacent tissues, and dissemination are fueled by inflammation, which is considered a hallmark of cancer. Chronic inflammation is generated by inflammatory cytokines secreted by the tumor and the tumor-associated cells within the tumor microenvironment. Inflammatory cytokine signaling initiates signaling pathways leading to the activation of master transcription factors (TFs) such as Smads, STAT3, and NF-κB. Moreover, the same inflammatory responses also activate EMT-inducing TF (EMT-TF) families such as Snail, Twist, and Zeb, and epigenetic regulators including DNA and histone modifying enzymes and micoRNAs, through complex interconnected positive and negative feedback loops to regulate EMT and CSC generation. Here, we review the molecular regulatory feedback loops and networks involved in inflammatory cytokine-induced EMT and CSC generation.

Ablation of miR-146b in mice causes hematopoietic malignancy

Excessive and constitutive activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) leads to abnormal cell proliferation and differentiation, leading to the development of malignant tumors, including lymphoma. MicroRNA 146a (miR-146a) and miR-146b, both of which carry an identical seed sequence, have been shown to contribute to inflammatory diseases and tumors by suppressing the expression of key molecules required for NF-κB activation. However, the functional and physiological differences between miR-146a and miR-146b in disease onset have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we generated miR-146b-knockout (KO) and miR-146a-KO mice by genome editing and found that both strains developed hematopoietic malignancies such as B-cell lymphoma and acute myeloid leukemia during aging. However, the B-cell lymphomas observed in miR-146a- and miR-146b-KO mice were histologically different in their morphology, and the malignancy rate is lower in miR-146b mice than miR-146a mice. Upon mitogenic stimulation, the expression of miR-146a and miR-146b was increased, but miR-146b expression was lower than that of miR-146a. Using a previously developed screening system for microRNA targets, we observed that miR-146a and miR-146b could target the same mRNAs, including TRAF6, and inhibit subsequent NF-κB activity. Consistent with these findings, both miR-146a- and miR-146b-KO B cells showed a high proliferative capacity. Taken together, sustained NF-κB activation in miR-146b KO mice could lead to the development of hematopoietic malignancy with aging.

Mechanism of Fibrosis Induced by Echinococcus spp

Infection with Echinococcus spp. causes fibrosis in various vital organs, including the liver and lungs. Hepatic fibrosis is a pathological feature of Echinococcus infection that destroys normal liver tissue, leading to jaundice, cholecystitis, portal hypertension, etc. Severe Echinococcus multilocularis infections lead to liver failure and hepatic encephalopathy. The formation of peripheral fiberboards around the metacestode is a major reason as to why antiparasitic drugs fail to be effectively transported to the lesion site. Studies on the mechanism of hepatic fibrosis caused by Echinococcus are important for treatment in patients. Recent studies have focused on miRNA and TGF-β. More recent findings have focused on the generation of collagen fibers around the metacestode. In this review paper we focus on the mechanism by which the Echinococcus parasite induces fibrosis in liver and some other organs in intermediate hosts—animals as well as human beings.

Limonin ameliorates ulcerative colitis by regulating STAT3/miR-214 signaling pathway

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a major inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) which has become a global public health problem. Limonin is a triterpenoid extracted from citrus which possesses the capacities to against inflammations and cell apoptosis. However, the efficacy and the underlying mechanisms of limonin in the treatment of UC remain unclear. In this study, we first investigated the therapeutic effects of limonin on dextran sodiumsulfate (DSS)-induced UC in vivo by examining the changes of disease activity index (DAI), the colon length, the colon histology, and cyto/chemokine levels. We found that limonin markedly reduced DAI, intestinal damages, and the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6. In vitro, limonin significantly repressed the productions of pro-inflammatory cytokines in cultured normal colonic epithelial cells. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that limonin improved the prognosis of UC mainly through downregulating p-STAT3/miR-214 levels. Collectively, our results suggested that limonin was a novel therapeutic agent and it was expected to be translated into the clinic to improve the prognosis of UC.

Maternal manganese activates anti-apoptotic-related gene expressions via miR-1551 and miR-34c in embryonic hearts from maternal heat stress (Gallus gallus)

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) expressions are altered by maternal stresses and nutritional status. Our previous study has demonstrated that maternal manganese (Mn) addition could protect chick embryos against maternal heat stress via enhancing anti-apoptotic ability in embryonic hearts. The objective of this study was to investigate whether this protective effect could be achieved via miRNA mechanisms, and also be sustained in offspring broilers. A completely randomized design with a 2 (maternal normal and high temperatures: 21 and 32 °C) × 2 (maternal control basal diet and the basal diet + 120 mg Mn/kg) factorial arrangement of treatments was adopted. Totally 96 broiler breeder hens were allotted to 4 treatments with 6 replicates. Subsequently, 24 hatched chicks from each maternal treatment were divided into 6 replicates. Maternal supplemental 120 mg Mn/kg reduced the increased expressions of miR-1551 and miR-34c in hearts of offspring embryos but not broilers under maternal heat stress. B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2 (BCL2) and NF-κB-inducing kinase (NIK) genes related to anti-apoptotic ability were identified as direct targets for miR-1551 and miR-34c, respectively. Under maternal heat stress, maternal supplemental 120 mg Mn/kg activated target BCL2 expression and NIK-dependent NF-κB pathway via mediating miR-1551 and miR-34c expressions in hearts of offspring embryos rather than broilers.

Long Noncoding Competing Endogenous RNA Networks in Age-Associated Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the most serious health problem in the world, displaying high rates of morbidity and mortality. One of the main risk factors for CVDs is age. Indeed, several mechanisms are at play during aging, determining the functional decline of the cardiovascular system. Aging cells and tissues are characterized by diminished autophagy, causing the accumulation of damaged proteins and mitochondria, as well as by increased levels of oxidative stress, apoptosis, senescence and inflammation. These processes can induce a rapid deterioration of cellular quality-control systems. However, the molecular mechanisms of age-associated CVDs are only partially known, hampering the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Evidence has emerged indicating that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) and micro RNAs (miRNAs), are implicated in most patho-physiological mechanisms. Specifically, lncRNAs can bind miRNAs and act as competing endogenous-RNAs (ceRNAs), therefore modulating the levels of the mRNAs targeted by the sponged miRNA. These complex lncRNA/miRNA/mRNA networks, by regulating autophagy, apoptosis, necrosis, senescence and inflammation, play a crucial role in the development of age-dependent CVDs. In this review, the emerging knowledge on lncRNA/miRNA/mRNA networks will be summarized and the way in which they influence age-related CVDs development will be discussed.

ITGBL1 promotes EMT, invasion and migration by activating NF-κB signaling pathway in prostate cancer

Background: Integrin beta-like 1 (ITGBL1) was extensively demonstrated to contribute the metastasis and progression in a variety of cancers. However, its role of ITGBL1 in prostate cancer (PCa) is still not reported.

Methods: Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot were performed to detect ITGBL1 expression in PCa tissues and cell lines. Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining of ITGBL1 in 174 PCa tissues was performed. The influence of ITGL1 expression in PCa cells epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), migration and invasion was investigated. Notably, the possible mechanisms underlying the action of ITGBL1 in vivo and vitro assays were explored.

Results: We analyzed PCa dataset from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and found that ITGBL1 was upregulated in PCa tissues. Overexpression of ITGBL1 is positively associated with the progression and lymph node metastasis in PCa patients. Furthermore, upregulating ITGBL1 enhanced the invasion, migration abilities and EMT in PCa cells. Conversely, downregulating ITGBL1 exhibited an opposite effect. Our findings further demonstrated that ITGBL1 promoted invasion and migration via activating NF-κB signaling in PCa cells.

Conclusion: Therefore, our results identify a novel metastasis-related gene in PCa, which will help to develop a novel therapeutic strategy in metastatic PCa.