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Lerche NW. Simian retroviruses: infection and disease--implications for immunotoxicology research in primates. J Immunotoxicol 2010; 7:93-101. [PMID: 20433415 DOI: 10.3109/15476911003657406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-human primates have assumed an important role in preclinical safety assessment studies, particularly in the evaluation of biopharmaceutical and immunomodulatory therapies. Naturally occurring simian retrovirus infections may adversely affect the suitability of primates for use in such studies. Various species of non-human primates are the natural hosts for six exogenous retroviruses, representing five genera within the family Retroviridae. Retroviruses establish persistent infections with a broad spectrum of pathogenic potential, ranging from nonpathogenic to highly pathogenic, depending on the variety of the host, virus, and environmental factors. In the context of immunotoxicology, in which the research objective is to specifically evaluate the effect of drugs or biologics on the immune system, the immune modulatory effects of simian retroviruses, which may be subtle or profound, may introduce significant confounding into the studies of immunotoxic effects utilizing non-human primates. Latent or subclinical retrovirus infections are common and research-related procedures may lead to virus reactivation or overt disease. Adverse effects of undetected retrovirus infections on preclinical research include the loss of experimental subjects (and potentially of statistical power) due to increased morbidity and mortality, virus-induced clinical abnormalities, histologic lesions, alteration of physiologic parameters and biologic responses, and interference with in vitro assays and/or cytolytic destruction of primary cell cultures. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the key biological, clinical, and pathological features of several important simian retroviruses, with emphasis on viruses infecting macaques and other primate species commonly used in preclinical research, and a discussion of the implications of these infections for immunotoxicology and other preclinical research in primates. Adequate pre-study retrovirus screening is essential to exclude retrovirus-infected primates from research protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Lerche
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616-8542, USA.
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Zao CL, Armstrong K, Tomanek L, Cooke A, Berger R, Estep JS, Marx PA, Trask JS, Smith DG, Yee JL, Lerche NW. The complete genome and genetic characteristics of SRV-4 isolated from cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Virology 2010; 405:390-6. [PMID: 20615522 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Revised: 04/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
At least 5 serotypes of exogenous simian retrovirus type D (SRV/D) have been found in nonhuman primates, but only SRV-1, 2 and 3 have been completely sequenced. SRV-4 was recovered once from cynomolgus macaques in California in 1984, but its genome sequences are unknown. Here we report the second identification of SRV-4 and its complete genome from infected cynomolgus macaques with Indochinese and Indonesian/Indochinese mixed ancestry. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that SRV-4 was distantly related to SRV-1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7. SRV/D-T, a new SRV/D recovered in 2005 from cynomolgus monkeys at Tsukuba Primate Center in Japan, clustered with the SRV-4 isolates from California and Texas and was shown to be another occurrence of SRV-4 infection. The repeated occurrence of SRV-4 in cynomolgus monkeys in different areas of the world and across 25years suggests that this species is the natural host of SRV-4.
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Mee ET, Murrell CK, Watkins J, Almond N, Cutler K, Rose NJ. Low rates of transmission of SRV-2 and STLV-I to juveniles in a population of Macaca fascicularis facilitate establishment of specific retrovirus-free colonies. J Med Primatol 2009; 38:160-70. [PMID: 19320800 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2008.00335.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prevalence of simian retrovirus-2 (SRV-2) and simian T lymphotropic virus type I (STLV-I), was unknown in 337 captive cynomolgus macaques. METHODS AND RESULTS Molecular assays identified 29% of animals as SRV-2 mono-infected, 4% of animals as STLV-I mono-infected and 9% of animals as dual-infected. Of 108 juvenile animals, 83% were SRV-2-negative and no juvenile animal was STLV-I-positive. A subsequent study of juvenile macaques over a period of 2.5 years detected no STLV-I and 10 SRV-2 infections, six of which occurred between testing and day of colony formation. The study also highlighted that an anti-SRV-2 serological response does not presuppose infection. Tissue reservoirs of latent SRV-2 were not identified in suspected SRV-2 infections. CONCLUSIONS Low transmissibility of the viruses present in the parental cohort and improved knowledge of the host response to SRV-2 has facilitated the creation of specific-retrovirus-free colonies of cynomolgus macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Mee
- Division of Retrovirology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, UK
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Morton WR, Agy MB, Capuano SV, Grant RF. Specific Pathogen-Free Macaques: Definition, History, and Current Production. ILAR J 2008; 49:137-44. [DOI: 10.1093/ilar.49.2.137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Hara M, Kikuchi T, Sata T, Nakajima N, Ami Y, Sato Y, Tanaka K, Narita T, Ono F, Akari H, Terao K, Mukai R. Detection of SRV/D shedding in body fluids of cynomolgus macaques and comparison of partial gp70 sequences in SRV/D-T isolates. Virus Genes 2007; 35:281-8. [PMID: 17253124 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-007-0076-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2006] [Accepted: 01/02/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported the isolation of a novel subtype of SRV/D-Tsukuba (SRV/D-T) from two cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca facicularis) in the breeding colony of Tsukuba Primate Research Center (TPRC). We surveyed for SRV/D infection in the TPRC cynomolgus colony using SRV/D-specific PCR primer sets designed based on the entire gag region sequence. The only SRV/D subtype detected in the colony was SRV/D-T with a positive infection rate of 22.4% (n = 49). It has been reported that the mode of transmission of SRV/D is via contact with virus shed in the body fluids. In this report, to investigate the infection route of SRV/D-T in monkeys at TPRC, we performed virus isolation and PCR for detection of the SRV/D genome from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), plasma, saliva, urine, and feces. Virus isolation and PCR detection were positive in plasma, saliva, urine, and fecal samples from all monkeys on which virus was isolated from PBMCs. This suggests that the spread of SRV/D-T infection in TPRC is via contact with virus shed in saliva, urine, and/or feces. Also, comparison of sequences of gp70 on multiple SRV/D-T isolates revealed that there was little intra- and inter-monkey variation, suggesting that SRV/D-T is fairly stable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Hara
- Tsukuba Primate Research Center, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, 1 Hachimanndai, Tsukuba 305-0843, Japan
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Wilkinson RC, Murrell CK, Guy R, Davis G, Hall JM, North DC, Rose NJ, Almond N. Persistence and dissemination of simian retrovirus type 2 DNA in relation to viremia, seroresponse, and experimental transmissibility in Macaca fascicularis. J Virol 2003; 77:10751-9. [PMID: 14512525 PMCID: PMC224967 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.20.10751-10759.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Endemic simian retrovirus (SRV) infection can cause fatal simian AIDS in Macaca fascicularis, but many individuals survive with few clinical signs. To further clarify the parameters of SRV pathogenesis, we investigated the persistence of viral DNA forms in relation to active viremia, antibody response, and transmissibility of infection. In M. fascicularis from endemically SRV-2-infected colonies, viral DNA was present in both linear and unintegrated long terminal repeat circular forms in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of all viremic and many nonviremic animals. Long-term followup of three individuals with distinct infection patterns demonstrated persistence of linear and circular forms of viral DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and tissues, irrespective of viremia or antibody status, but reactivation of latent infections was not observed. The role of viral DNA in transmission and early pathogenesis of SRV-2 was investigated by inoculation of SRV-2 DNA-positive blood into groups of naïve M. fascicularis from either a viremic or nonviremic donor and subsequent analysis of the virological and serological status of the recipients. Transmission of SRV and development of anti-SRV antibodies were only observed in recipients of blood from the viremic donor; transfer of SRV provirus and unintegrated circular DNA in blood from the nonviremic donor did not lead to infection of the recipients. These results indicate that a proportion of M. fascicularis are able to effectively control the replication and infectivity of SRV despite long-term persistence of viral DNA forms in infected lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roseanne C Wilkinson
- Division of Retrovirology. Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, United Kingdom.
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Lerche NW, Osborn KG. Simian retrovirus infections: potential confounding variables in primate toxicology studies. Toxicol Pathol 2003; 31 Suppl:103-10. [PMID: 12597437 DOI: 10.1080/01926230390174977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Various species of nonhuman primates are natural hosts for 6 exogenous retroviruses, including gibbon-ape leukemia virus (GaLV), simian sarcoma virus, simian T-lymphotropic virus (STLV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), simian type D retrovirus (SRV), and simian foamy virus (SFV). These viruses establish persistent infections with a broad spectrum of pathogenic potential, ranging from highly pathogenic to nonpathogenic, depending on various host, virus, and environmental factors. Latent or subclinical infections are common, and various procedures associated with experimental protocols may lead to virus reactivation and disease. Adverse effects on toxicologic research by undetected retroviral infections can occur in several ways, including loss of experimental subjects (and statistical power) due to increased morbidity and mortality. In addition, results may be confounded by virus-induced clinical abnormalities, histologic lesions, alteration of physiologic parameters and responses, and interference with in vitro assays and/or destruction of primary cell cultures. Key clinical and epidemiological features of several important retroviruses are reviewed, with emphasis on viruses infecting species of macaques most commonly used as research subjects in primate toxicology studies. Examples of actual and potential confounding of toxicologic studies by retroviruses are discussed, including altered cytokine profiles in healthy STLV carriers, and clinical and pathological abnormalities induced by SRV infection. Adequate prestudy viral screening is critical to exclude retrovirus-infected primates from toxicologic research protocols and prevent potential confounding of research results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W Lerche
- Simian Retrovirus Laboratory, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Moazed TC, Thouless ME. Viral persistence of simian type D retrovirus (SRV‐2/W) in naturally infected pigtailed macaques (
Macaca nemestrina
). J Med Primatol 1993. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.1993.tb00690.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa C. Moazed
- Department of PathobiologySchool of Public Health, and University of Washington
| | - Margaret E. Thouless
- Department of PathobiologySchool of Public Health, and University of Washington
- Regional Primate Research Center University of WashingtonSeattleWA98195U.S.A
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Klumpp S, Novembre F, Anderson D, Simon M, Ringler D, McClure H. Clinical and pathologic findings in infant rhesus macaques infected with SIV
smm
by maternal transmission. J Med Primatol 1993. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.1993.tb00656.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S.A. Klumpp
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | - F.J. Novembre
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
- Department of PathologyEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | - D.C. Anderson
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | - M.A. Simon
- New England Regional Primate Research CenterHarvard Medical SchoolSouthboroughMAU.S.A
| | - D.J. Ringler
- New England Regional Primate Research CenterHarvard Medical SchoolSouthboroughMAU.S.A
| | - H.M. McClure
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
- Department of PathologyEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
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Titti F, Borsetti A, Geraci A, Sernicola L, Giuseppini L, Turillazzi G, Pace M, Baroncelli S, Amadori A, Giovannetti A, Dianzani F, Chieco‐Bianchi L, Rossi G, Verani P. Vaccination of pregnant cynomolgus monkeys with whole formalin‐inactivated SIV
mac251. J Med Primatol 1992. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.1992.tb00573.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- F. Titti
- Laboratory of VirologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - A. Borsetti
- Laboratory of VirologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - A. Geraci
- Laboratory of VirologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - L. Sernicola
- Laboratory of VirologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - L. Giuseppini
- Laboratory of VirologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - G.P. Turillazzi
- Laboratory of Comparative Toxicology and EcotoxicologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - M. Pace
- Laboratory of Comparative Toxicology and EcotoxicologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - S. Baroncelli
- Laboratory of Comparative Toxicology and EcotoxicologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - A. Amadori
- Department of OncologyUniversity of PaduaItaly
| | | | - F. Dianzani
- Institute of VirologyLa Sapienza UniversityRomeItaly
| | | | - G.B. Rossi
- Laboratory of VirologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
| | - P. Verani
- Laboratory of VirologyIstituto Superiore di SanitàRome
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McClure HM, Anderson DC, Fultz PN, Ansari AA, Jehuda‐Cohen T, Villinger F, Klumpp SA, Switzer W, Lockwood E, Brodie A, Keyserling H. Maternal transmission of SIV
smm
in rhesus macaques. J Med Primatol 1991. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.1991.tb00516.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Harold M. McClure
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
- Department of PathologySchool of MedicineEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | | | - Patricia N. Fultz
- Department of MicrobiologyUniversity of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamALUSA
| | - Aftab A. Ansari
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
- Department of PathologySchool of MedicineEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | | | | | - Sherry A. Klumpp
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | - William Switzer
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | - Ellen Lockwood
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | - Anne Brodie
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
| | - Harry Keyserling
- Yerkes Regional Primate Research CenterEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
- Department of PediatricsSchool of MedicineEmory UniversityAtlantaGA
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