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Efficacy and Function of Feathers, Hair, and Glabrous Skin in the Thermoregulation Strategies of Domestic Animals. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11123472. [PMID: 34944249 PMCID: PMC8697956 DOI: 10.3390/ani11123472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Animals adopt several strategies to regulate their body temperature by promoting heat loss or gain in hot and cold environments, respectively. This mechanism of heat loss or production is performed in thermal windows. A thermal window is a structure where many blood capillaries facilitate thermal exchange in this region. The presence of feathers, hair, or glabrous (hairless) skin and their structural characteristics greatly influence each species’ capacity to maintain thermal comfort. This factor needs to be considered when implementing new monitoring or measuring techniques such as infrared thermography since interpretations may vary due to the presence or absence of these structures. It is essential to recognize the effects of glabrous skin, hair, and feathers on thermoregulation to identify species-specific thermal windows that allow accurate evaluations of the thermal state of domestic animals. Abstract The objective of this review is to describe and analyze the effect of feathers, hair, and glabrous (hairless) skin on the thermoregulation of domestic and endotherm animals, especially concerning the uses and scope of infrared thermography (IRT), scientific findings on heat and cold stress, and differences among species of domestic animals. Clinical medicine considers thermoregulation a mechanism that allows animals to adapt to varying thermal environmental conditions, a process in which the presence of feathers, hair, or glabrous skin influences heat loss or heat retention, respectively, under hot and cold environmental conditions. Evaluating body temperature provides vital information on an individual’s physiological state and health status since variations in euthermia maintenance in vertebrates reflect a significant cellular metabolism deviation that needs to be assessed and quantified. IRT is a non-invasive tool for evaluating thermal responses under thermal stress conditions in animals, where the presence or absence of feathers, hair, and glabrous skin can affect readings and the differences detected. Therefore, anatomical regions, the characteristics of feathers, hair, glabrous skin such as structure, length, color, and extension, and strategies for dissipating or retaining heat together constitute a broad area of opportunity for future research into the phenomena of dermal thermoregulation in domestic species.
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Navarro-Serra A, Sanz-Cabañes H. Subcutaneous thermal sensor microchip validation in vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus
) during normothermic and hypothermic situations. J Med Primatol 2019; 48:77-81. [DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2018] [Revised: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Navarro-Serra
- Veterinary Faculty; Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU; CEU Universities; Alfara del Patriarca Valencia Spain
- Vervet Monkey Foundation; Tzaneen Limpopo Province South Africa
| | - Héctor Sanz-Cabañes
- Veterinary Faculty; Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU; CEU Universities; Alfara del Patriarca Valencia Spain
- Vervet Monkey Foundation; Tzaneen Limpopo Province South Africa
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Fiebig K, Jourdan T, Kock MH, Merle R, Thöne-Reineke C. Evaluation of Infrared Thermography for Temperature Measurement in Adult Male NMRI Nude Mice. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2018; 57:715-724. [PMID: 30208989 PMCID: PMC6241389 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-17-000137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Temperature monitoring during critical care provides important data required to guide treatment delivery. Body temperature is an easily quantified clinical parameter that can yield much information concerning the health of an animal. In research settings, temperature has been adopted as a means to judge humane endpoints. Therefore, reliable, noninvasive, and inexpensive methods for temperature monitoring are becoming a necessity in research laboratories. This study aimed to determine the accuracy and agreement of using an infrared camera as an alternative method of temperature measurement in mice and to compare the accuracy of this noninvasive method with established subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, and rectal techniques. Measurement of body-surface temperature by using an infrared camera was compared with these 3 established methods in male NMRI nude mice (n = 10; age, 10 mo); data were obtained 3 times daily over 14 d. Subcutaneous temperatures were measured remotely by using a previously implanted subcutaneous temperature transponder, after which temperature was measured by using noncontact infrared thermometry and a rectal probe. Measurements from intraperitoneal data loggers were obtained retrospectively. The data show that using an infrared camera provides a simple, reliable method for measuring body temperature in male NMRI nu/nu mice that minimizes handling and is minimally invasive. Whether infrared thermometry is a useful method for measuring body temperature in furred mice warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Fiebig
- Animal Management-Animal Care, Bayer AG, Berlin, Germany;, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Thomas Jourdan
- Animal Management-Animal Care, Bayer AG, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin H Kock
- Animal Management-Animal Care, Bayer AG, Berlin, Germany
| | - Roswitha Merle
- Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Institute of Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christa Thöne-Reineke
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Mei J, Riedel N, Grittner U, Endres M, Banneke S, Emmrich JV. Body temperature measurement in mice during acute illness: implantable temperature transponder versus surface infrared thermometry. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3526. [PMID: 29476115 PMCID: PMC5824949 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22020-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Body temperature is a valuable parameter in determining the wellbeing of laboratory animals. However, using body temperature to refine humane endpoints during acute illness generally lacks comprehensiveness and exposes to inter-observer bias. Here we compared two methods to assess body temperature in mice, namely implanted radio frequency identification (RFID) temperature transponders (method 1) to non-contact infrared thermometry (method 2) in 435 mice for up to 7 days during normothermia and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxin-induced hypothermia. There was excellent agreement between core and surface temperature as determined by method 1 and 2, respectively, whereas the intra- and inter-subject variation was higher for method 2. Nevertheless, using machine learning algorithms to determine temperature-based endpoints both methods had excellent accuracy in predicting death as an outcome event. Therefore, less expensive and cumbersome non-contact infrared thermometry can serve as a reliable alternative for implantable transponder-based systems for hypothermic responses, although requiring standardization between experimenters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Mei
- Department of Neurology and Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nico Riedel
- QUEST - Center for Transforming Biomedical Research, Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany
| | - Ulrike Grittner
- Center for Stroke Research, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Biostatistics and Clinical Epidemiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Endres
- Department of Neurology and Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Center for Stroke Research, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Berlin, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefanie Banneke
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Center for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Berlin, Germany
| | - Julius Valentin Emmrich
- Department of Neurology and Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.
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Pereira LC, Barros M. Relationship between body temperature, weight, and hematological parameters of black tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix penicillata
). J Med Primatol 2016; 45:118-25. [DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Cardoso Pereira
- Primate Center and Department of Physiological Sciences; Institute of Biology; University of Brasilia; Brasilia DF Brazil
| | - Marilia Barros
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences; School of Health Sciences; University of Brasilia; Brasilia DF Brazil
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Kreissl H, Neiger R. Measurement of body temperature in 300 dogs with a novel noncontact infrared thermometer on the cornea in comparison to a standard rectal digital thermometer. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2015; 25:372-8. [PMID: 25854787 DOI: 10.1111/vec.12302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the accuracy of obtaining body temperatures in dogs with a noncontact infrared thermometer (NCIT) on the cornea compared with a rectal digital thermometer (RDT). DESIGN Prospective single center study. SETTING University teaching hospital. ANIMALS Three hundred dogs presented with low, normal, or high body temperatures. INTERVENTIONS Three body temperature readings were measured by an RDT and by an NCIT on the cornea of the left eye by 2 investigators (experienced and inexperienced). Results obtained by the 2 methods were compared. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Median body temperature measured by the experienced investigator with the RDT and the NCIT were 38.3°C (range 35.5°C-41.1°C; 95% CI: 38.2-38.4°C) and 37.7°C (35.9°C-40.1°C; 95% CI: 37.7°C-37.9°C), respectively. Measurement of RDT as well as of NCIT correlated well between both investigators (rRDT = 0.94; rNCIT = 0.82; respectively, P < 0.001 for both methods). Mean RDT and NCIT-temperature correlated poorly (r = 0.43; P < 0.001) when taken by the experienced investigator and even less by the nonexperienced investigator (r = 0.38; P < 0.001). Repeatability of the NCIT revealed an unsatisfactory value (0.24°C) compared to RDT measurement (0.12°C). Agreement between both devices in measuring low, normal, and high values, calculated by Cohens-Kappa, was unsatisfactory (к = 0.201; P < 0.001). Calculating the receiver operating characteristic curve to determine the best threshold for fever (defined as RDT temperature >39.0°C) showed an area under the curve of 0.76. Mean discomfort score was significantly lower using NCIT compared to RDT measurement (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS There was poor agreement between body temperatures obtained by RDT and NCIT. The corneal NCIT measurement tends to underrecognize hypothermic and hyperthermic conditions. Although the use of the NCIT yields faster results and is significantly more comfortable for the dog than the RDT measurement, it cannot be recommended in dogs at this time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Kreissl
- Department of Clinical Studies, Small Animal Clinic, University of Giessen, Germany
| | - Reto Neiger
- Department of Clinical Studies, Small Animal Clinic, University of Giessen, Germany
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Hoskinson C, McCain S, Allender MC. Comparison of body temperature readings between an implantable microchip and a cloacal probe in lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus sp.). Zoo Biol 2014; 33:452-4. [PMID: 25270528 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Body temperature readings can be a useful diagnostic tool for identifying the presence of subclinical disease. Traditionally, rectal or cloacal thermometry has been used to obtain body temperatures. The use of implantable microchips to obtain these temperatures has been studied in a variety of animals, but not yet in avian species. Initially, timepoint one (T₁), nine lorikeets were anesthetized via facemask induction with 5% isoflurane and maintained at 2-3% for microchip placement and body temperature data collection. Body temperature was measured at 0 and 2 min post-anesthetic induction both cloacally, using a Cardell veterinary monitor and also via implantable microchip, utilizing a universal scanner. On two more occasions, timepoints two and three (T₂, T₃), the same nine lorikeets were manually restrained to obtain body temperature readings both cloacally and via microchip, again at minutes 0 and 2. There was no statistical difference between body temperatures, for both methods, at T₁. Microchip temperatures were statistically different than cloacal temperatures at T₂ and T₃. Body temperatures at T₁, were statistically different from those obtained at T₂ and T₃ for both methods. Additional studies are warranted to verify the accuracy of microchip core body temperature readings in avian species.
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A Comparative Study of Non-contact Infrared and Digital Rectal Thermometer Measurements of Body Temperature in the Horse. J Equine Vet Sci 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2011.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Torrao NA, Hetem RS, Meyer LCR, Fick LG. Assessment of the use of temperature-sensitive microchips to determine core body temperature in goats. Vet Rec 2011; 168:328. [PMID: 21498217 DOI: 10.1136/vr.c6200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Body temperature was measured at five different body sites (retroperitoneum, groin, semimembranosus muscle, flank and shoulder) using temperature-sensitive microchips implanted in five female goats, and compared with the core body and rectal temperatures. Body temperature was measured while the goats were kept in different ambient temperatures, with and without radiant heat, as well as during a fever induced experimentally by injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Bland-Altman limit of agreement analysis was used to compare the temperature measurements at the different body sites during the different interventions. Temperatures measured by the microchip implanted in the retroperitoneum showed the closest agreement (mean 0.2 °C lower) with core and rectal temperatures during all interventions, whereas temperatures measured by the microchips implanted in the groin, muscle, flank and shoulder differed from core body temperature by up to 3.5 °C during the various interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Torrao
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, University of the Witwatersrand, Medical School, 7 York Road, Parktown 2193, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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Hoy JM, Murray PJ, Tribe A. The potential for microchip-automated technology to improve enrichment practices. Zoo Biol 2011; 29:586-99. [PMID: 20024962 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.20296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The greatest limitation involved with providing enrichment and evaluating its effects on captive mammals is a lack of available staff time [Hoy et al., 2009]. One method to overcome this is through the use of automated husbandry systems to dispense enrichment to individual animals by using implantable radio frequency microchips. An international multi-institutional survey was conducted to determine whether the personnel involved with management, research, and husbandry of captive mammals would support the development of such automated husbandry systems. The survey was also designed to establish which applications of the system would be considered to be most beneficial. Overall, there was a very high level of interest by survey respondents in adopting automated husbandry systems and all potential applications were considered beneficial to varying degrees. These results, together with the relatively low cost of installation and operation, demonstrate that in the future automated enrichment could be an important and effective means of enhancing captive animal management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia M Hoy
- School of Animal Studies, The University of Queensland, Gatton Campus, Queensland, Australia.
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Long C, Pacharinsak C, Jampachaisri K, McKeon G, Howard A, Albertelli M, Felt S. Comparison of rectal and tympanic core body temperature measurement in adult Guyanese squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus sciureus). J Med Primatol 2010; 40:135-41. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2010.00449.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Robinson TR, Hussey SB, Hill AE, Heckendorf CC, Stricklin JB, Traub-Dargatz JL. Comparison of temperature readings from a percutaneous thermal sensing microchip with temperature readings from a digital rectal thermometer in equids. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008; 233:613-7. [PMID: 18710319 DOI: 10.2460/javma.233.4.613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare temperature readings from an implantable percutaneous thermal sensing microchip with temperature readings from a digital rectal thermometer, to identify factors that affect microchip readings, and to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of the microchip for fever detection. DESIGN Prospective study. ANIMALS 52 Welsh pony foals that were 6 to 10 months old and 30 Quarter Horses that were 2 years old. PROCEDURES Data were collected in summer, winter, and fall in groups 1 (n = 23 ponies), 2 (29 ponies), and 3 (30 Quarter Horses), respectively. Temperature readings from a digital rectal thermometer and a percutaneous thermal sensing microchip as well as ambient temperature were recorded daily for 17, 23, and 19 days in groups 1 through 3, respectively. Effects of ambient temperature and rectal temperature on thermal sensor readings were estimated. Sensitivity and specificity of the thermal sensor for detection of fever (rectal temperature, >or= 38.9 degrees C [102 degrees F]) were estimated separately for data collection at ambient temperatures <or= 15.6 degrees C (60 degrees F) and > 15.6 degrees C. RESULTS Mean ambient temperatures were 29.0 degrees C (84.2 degrees F), -2.7 degrees C (27.1 degrees F), and 10.4 degrees C (50.8 degrees F) for groups 1 through 3, respectively. Thermal sensor readings varied with ambient temperature and rectal temperature. Rectal temperatures ranged from 36.2 degrees to 41.7 degrees C (97.2 degrees to 107 degrees F), whereas thermal sensor temperature readings ranged from 23.9 degrees (75 degrees F) to 42.2 degrees C (75 degrees to 108 degrees F). Sensitivity for fever detection was 87.4%, 53.3%, and 58.3% in groups 1 to 3, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The thermal sensor appeared to have potential use for initial screening of body temperature in equids at ambient temperatures > 15.6 degrees C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana R Robinson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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