Exercise experience influences affective and motivational outcomes of prescribed and self-selected intensity exercise

Affective Responses to Acute Exercise: A Meta-Analysis of the Potential Beneficial Effects of a Single Bout of Exercise on General Mood, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Acute exercise elicits various biobehavioral and psychological responses, but results are mixed with regard to the magnitude of exercise-induced affective reactions. This meta-analysis examines the magnitude of general mood state, anxiety, and depressive symptom responses to acute exercise while exploring exercise protocol characteristics and background health behaviors that may play a role in the affective response.

METHODS

A total of 2770 articles were identified from a MEDLINE/PubMed search and an additional 133 articles from reviews of reference sections. Studies had to have measured general mood before the acute exercise bout and within 30 minutes after exercise completion. Effect sizes were estimated using Hedges' g , with larger values indicating improvement in the outcome measure.

RESULTS

A total of 103 studies were included presenting data from 4671 participants. General mood state improved from preexercise to postexercise ( g = 0.336, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.234-0.439). Anxiety ( g = 0.497, 95% CI = 0.263-0.730) and depressive symptoms ( g = 0.407, 95% CI = 0.249-0.564) also improved with exercise. There was substantial and statistically significant heterogeneity in each of these meta-analyses. This heterogeneity was not explained by differences in participants' health status. Meta-regression analyses with potential moderators (intensity of exercise, mode of exercise, usual physical activity level, or weight status of participants) also did not reduce the heterogeneity.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis shows significantly improved general mood, decreased anxiety, and lower depressive symptoms in response to an acute bout of exercise. There was substantial heterogeneity in the magnitude of the effect sizes, indicating that additional research is needed to identify determinants of a positive affective response to acute exercise.

The Effect of Acute Exercise on State Anxiety: A Systematic Review

Acute exercise has been shown to induce a small reduction in state anxiety, yet the most beneficial exercise stimulus is not clear. This review provides an update on the papers published since the last comprehensive review in 2015, with specific emphasis on whether study quality has improved. Randomised control trials, conducted in samples of healthy adults with non-clinical anxiety, were sourced from PubMed, PsycInfo, and Scopus. Study characteristics and study quality were assessed in nine studies comprising thirteen exercise conditions. Acute exercise significantly reduced anxiety in 53% (N = 7/13) of the exercise conditions. In comparison to a control condition, four showed exercising to be more effective, and one was as effective as the control. Two of the effective studies did not contain a control group. Six conditions were ineffective in reducing anxiety. There was no clear pattern of what combination of exercise mode, duration, and intensity was most effective, suggesting a variety may be effective in reducing anxiety. Methodological limitations still exist within the research, e.g., participant recruitment not considering baseline anxiety; variations in the control condition content. Future research should include participant samples exhibiting moderate-to-high levels of anxiety and examine self-selected exercise intensities.

A systematic narrative review of extrinsic strategies to improve affective responses to exercise

Background

Extrinsic strategies affect the exercise experience but fall outside the frequency, intensity, time, and type (i.e., dose-determining) principles. To our knowledge, no systematic review has focused on extrinsic strategies to influence the affective responses to exercise. The objective was to identify extrinsic strategies that seek to influence affective responses during exercise and other motivationally relevant variables including post-exercise momentary affective valence, remembered and forecasted pleasure, and enjoyment.

Methods

For inclusion, eligible articles reported peer-reviewed original research, used acute bouts of exercise, and used a dimensional approach for measuring affective responses or measured enjoyment post-exercise. Web of Science, PubMed, and PsychINFO databases were last searched on 10th September 2021. Quality assessment was completed following the Effective Public Health Practice Project approach. Results were presented using a narrative synthesis.

Results

125 studies were included with sample descriptions, study design (extrinsic strategies, mode, type, intensity, and duration), measurement details, and results summarised for each study.

Conclusions

71% of studies were categorised as Weak according to the quality assessment tool with sampling practices (self-referred participants) and poor reporting of participant withdrawals/drop-outs the predominant reasons for Weak ratings. A wide variety of extrinsic strategies were reported with music, music videos, immersive virtual reality, outdoor exercise, caffeine, high-to-low pattern of exercise intensity, self-selected exercise intensity, and manipulation of self-efficacy offering promise as suitable strategies to positively change how people feel during exercise.

Systematic Review Registration

https://osf.io/jbh8v/.

Exploring the impact of individualized pleasure-oriented exercise sessions in a health club setting: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Research on the relationship between exercise-induced affect and exercise or physical activity behavior has gained momentum in recent years, yielding several observational and longitudinal studies. However, experimental tests demonstrating a causal role of affective responses on exercise adherence are lacking. Given the need to devise exercise prescriptions that can facilitate adherence and promote regular physical activity, a Randomized Controlled Trial targeting individual pleasurable responses in a health-club setting will be conducted. The experimental protocol will compare two individualized evaluation, prescription, and supervision methods, adjusted for intensity, with the aim to explore their impact on behavioral, affective, and motivational outcomes. The planned study will be a pragmatic randomized, single-blinded, controlled superiority trial with two parallel groups and an allocation ratio of 1:1. Apparently healthy volunteer participants (N = 46) between 18 and 45 years old, who are not regularly active, will be randomly allocated to a control or experimental group. The control group will follow a general American College of Sports Medicine exercise prescription; the experimental group will follow the same prescription but with enhancements aimed at promoting pleasure: (1) individualization based on individual differences in preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity; (2) self-regulation of intensity; and (3) repeated assessments of core affect. The primary outcome will be post-intervention exercise-session attendance. Affective and motivational variables will be examined as secondary outcomes. The results are expected to advance exercise prescriptions by promoting affective regulation, thus helping to improve exercise adherence and related outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov; ID: NCT05416593.

Comparing a recommendation for self-paced versus moderate intensity physical activity for midlife adults: Rationale and design

Current U.S. guidelines recommend that adults obtain 150 min per week of moderate intensity physical activity (PA), 75 min of vigorous intensity PA, or some equivalent combination. However, less than half of U.S. adults reach this goal, with the proportion even smaller among adults with overweight or obesity. Moreover, regular PA declines after age 45-50. Previous research suggests a shift in national guidelines to emphasize PA of a self-selected intensity (i.e., self-paced), instead of prescribed moderate intensity PA, may result in better adherence to PA programs, particularly among midlife adults with overweight or obesity. The present paper presents the protocol for a field-based RCT testing the hypothesis that adherence to PA programs is improved when PA is explicitly recommended to be self-paced rather than prescribed at moderate intensity among midlife (ages 50-64) adults (N = 240) with overweight or obesity. All participants receive a 12-month intervention designed to help them overcome barriers to regular PA and are randomly assigned to either self-paced or prescribed moderate intensity PA. The primary outcome is total volume of PA (minutes by intensity) as measured by accelerometry. Secondary outcomes include self-reported min/week of PA and changes in bodyweight. Additionally, using ecological momentary assessment, we examine putative mediators of treatment effects. We hypothesize self-paced PA will lead to a more positive affective response to PA, more perceived autonomy, and lower perceived exertion during PA, and thus greater increases in PA behavior. Findings will have direct implications for PA intensity recommendations among midlife adults with overweight or obesity.

Can acute exercise be more pleasant? Using audiovisual stimuli: A meta-analysis

This meta-analytic study aimed to examine the effects of audiovisual stimuli on affective responses during and after exercise and their moderators. A total of 296 effect sizes (Hedge's g) were extracted from 46 independent studies covering 1292 participants. Meta-analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Version 3.3, and potential moderating variables were analysed using univariate meta-regression models. Audiovisual stimuli increased affective valence during (g = 0.793, 95% CI [0.666, 0.920]) and after exercise (g = 0.792, 95% CI [0.567, 1.016]), and arousal during (g = 0.920, 95% CI [0.742 1.097]) and after exercise (g = 0.666, 95% CI [0.390, 0.962]). There may be publication bias in the meta-analysis, but the main findings are still valid. The type of audiovisual stimuli (audio-video > audio or video), exercise habits (active > not reported), and exercise intensities (self-selected > imposed) moderated the effects. In conclusion, the application of audiovisual stimuli during exercise can elicit positive affective responses. These results provide a viable intervention strategy for exercise and health practitioners to reduce the number of physically inactive individuals and improve exercise compliance and adherence.

The effect of narrative element incorporation on physical activity and game experience in active and sedentary virtual reality games

Narratives are pervasive in video games and have been found to increase physical activity in active video games. However, the effect of incorporating narrative elements has seldom been examined in fully immersive virtual reality games. We investigated the effect of narrative element incorporation (between-subject: narrative vs. no narrative) in active virtual reality and sedentary virtual reality games (within-subject) and examined between- and within-subject effects on physical activity behavior, game experience, and physical activity engagement. We randomized 36 sedentary college students to either the narrative or the non-narrative group. All participants played an active virtual reality and a sedentary virtual reality game in counter-balanced order. Before each game session, they either watched a 5-min narrative video (narrative) or directly played the original virtual reality games without narratives (non-narrative). We collected participants' physical activity data using wrist-worn accelerometers; we obtained their game experience and physical activity engagement via questionnaires. The narrative group spent a greater proportion of time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (%) and had less non-movement time during the active virtual reality gameplay than the non-narrative group (all p values < .05). The active virtual reality sessions induced a greater positive affect and greater physical activity engagement ratings than the sedentary virtual reality sessions. The incorporation of narrative elements in active virtual reality increased the relative time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and reduced non-movement time, compared to the non-narrative group. Active virtual reality encouraged more activity by participants and offered them a more enjoyable gaming experience in which they engaged more. Active virtual reality is a feasible physical activity promotion option among sedentary adults; the incorporation of narrative elements in active virtual reality helps increase relative moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and should be further explored for its efficacy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10055-023-00754-7.

Assessment of Exercise Intensity for Uphill Walking in Healthy Adults Performed Indoors and Outdoors

BACKGROUND

Borg's rating of perceived exertion (BRPE) scale is a simple, but subjective tool to grade physical strain during exercise. As a result, it is widely used for the prescription of exercise intensity, especially for cardiovascular disease prevention. The purpose of this study was to assess and compare relationships between BRPE and physiological measures of exercise intensity during uphill walking indoors and outdoors.

METHODS

134 healthy participants [median age: 56 years (IQR 52-63)] completed a maximal graded walking test indoors on a treadmill using the modified Bruce protocol, and a submaximal 1 km outdoor uphill cardio-trekking test (1 km CTT). Heart rate (HR) and oxygen consumption (V̇O2) were continuously measured throughout both tests. BRPE was simultaneously assessed at the end of each increment on the treadmill, while the maximal BRPE value was noted at the end of the 1 km CTT.

RESULTS

On the treadmill, BRPE correlated very high with relative HR (%HRmax) (ρ = 0.88, p < 0.001) and V̇O2 (%V̇O2max) (ρ = 0.89, p < 0.001). During the 1 km CTT, a small correlation between BRPE and %HRmax (ρ = 0.24, p < 0.05), respectively %V̇O2max was found (ρ = 0.24, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Criterion validity of BRPE during uphill walking depends on the environment and is higher during a treadmill test compared to a natural environment. Adding sensor-based, objective exercise-intensity parameters such as HR holds promise to improve intensity prescription and health safety during uphill walking in a natural environment.

An Examination and Critique of Subjective Methods to Determine Exercise Intensity: The Talk Test, Feeling Scale, and Rating of Perceived Exertion

Prescribing exercise intensity is crucial in achieving an adequate training stimulus. While numerous objective methods exist and are used in practical settings for exercise intensity prescription, they all require anchor measurements that are derived from a maximal or submaximal graded exercise test or a series of submaximal or supramaximal exercise bouts. Conversely, self-reported subjective methods such as the Talk Test (TT), Feeling Scale (FS) affect rating, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) do not require exercise testing prior to commencement of the exercise training and therefore appear as more practical tools for exercise intensity prescription. This review is intended to provide basic information on reliability and construct validity of the TT, FS, and RPE measurements to delineate intensity domains. The TT and RPE appear to be valid measures of both the ventilatory threshold and the respiratory compensation threshold. Although not specifically examined, the FS showed tendency to demarcate ventilatory threshold, but its validity to demarcate the respiratory compensation threshold is limited. Equivocal stage of the TT, RPE of 10-11, and FS ratings between fairly good (+ 1) and good (+ 3) are reflective of the ventilatory threshold, while negative stage of the TT, RPE of 13-15, and FS ratings around neutral (0) are reflective of the respiratory compensation threshold. The TT and RPE can effectively be used to elicit homeostatic disturbances consistent with the moderate, heavy, and severe intensity domains, while physiological responses to constant FS ratings show extensive variability around ventilatory threshold to be considered effective in demarcating transition between moderate and heavy intensity domains.

Exercise intensity assessment and prescription in cardiovascular rehabilitation and beyond: why and how: a position statement from the Secondary Prevention and Rehabilitation Section of the European Association of Preventive Cardiology

A proper determination of the exercise intensity is important for the rehabilitation of patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD) since it affects the effectiveness and medical safety of exercise training. In 2013, the European Association of Preventive Cardiology (EAPC), together with the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation and the Canadian Association of Cardiac Rehabilitation, published a position statement on aerobic exercise intensity assessment and prescription in cardiovascular rehabilitation (CR). Since this publication, many subsequent papers were published concerning the determination of the exercise intensity in CR, in which some controversies were revealed and some of the commonly applied concepts were further refined. Moreover, how to determine the exercise intensity during resistance training was not covered in this position paper. In light of these new findings, an update on how to determine the exercise intensity for patients with CVD is mandatory, both for aerobic and resistance exercises. In this EAPC position paper, it will be explained in detail which objective and subjective methods for CR exercise intensity determination exist for aerobic and resistance training, together with their (dis)advantages and practical applications.

Exploring Determinants of Exercise-Related Affective Valence in Regular Exercisers Between the Ages of 55 and 69 Years

This study aimed to understand determinants of recalled in-task affective valence experienced during a regularly performed aerobic bout in adult exercisers aged 55+. Qualitative data were collected (January to March, 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic) using interviews wherein individuals (N = 16, 69% women, 61 ± 5 years) recalled deviations in affective valence in response to a regularly completed bout. Using thematic analyses, two themes emerged regarding how COVID-19 impacted regular exercise behaviors: (a) “loss” and (b) “adaptation.” Two themes encompassed the determinants of recalled in-task affective valence: (a) “person-specific conditions” and (b) “external conditions.” Finally, an increase in duration/intensity during a pleasant session was indicated by 44% of the participants, while 75% indicated a decrease in duration/intensity during an unpleasant session. The participants indicated that affective valence was determined by previously cited and novel factors that relate to exercise performed in naturalistic environments. Volitional modifications to planned exercise volume appear more responsive to feelings of displeasure.

Effects of self-paced high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous training on the physical performance and psychophysiological responses in recreationally active young adults

This study aimed to compare the effects of 8-week self-paced high-intensity interval training (HIIT) vs. self-paced moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on the physical performance and psychophysiological responses of young adults. Twenty-eight recreationally active young adults (age: 21.1 ± 1.6 years) were randomly assigned to either the self-paced HIIT (n = 14) or the MICT (n = 14) group training protocol. The HIIT consisted of two 12-24 x 30 seconds of high-intensity runs interspersed by 30 seconds of recovery. The MICT completed 24-48 minutes of continuous running. Before and after the 8-week interventions the following tests were completed: maximum oxygen consumption (V̇O_2max) estimated from the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (YYIRTL-1), repeated sprint ability (RSA), 10-30-m sprint test, change of direction test (T-drill), countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ), and triple hop distance test (THD). Training rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES) were assessed during the training programme. The HIIT resulted in greater improvement in YYIRTL-1, V̇O_2max, RSA and T-drill performances compared to the MICT. Furthermore, RPE and PACES values were higher in the HIIT than the MICT. This study suggested that self-paced HIIT may be a more effective training regime to improve aerobic fitness with greater physical enjoyment in recreationally active young adults.

A Study Using Power Cycling on the Affective Responses of a Low-Volume High-Intensity Interval Training to Male Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes in Different Physical Activity Status

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has been shown in studies to enhance glucose management and cardiovascular well-being in patients with type 2 diabetes. In this study, we used power cycling to assess the physical activity levels of men with type 2 diabetes during a single low-volume HIIT session. First, fifty-six men with type 2 diabetes volunteered to take part in the study, and they were split into two groups based on the International Physical Activity Scale Short Form (IPA). To the first 1-4 labor bouts, both the sufficiently physically active and insufficiently physically active groups exhibited equal positive emotional reactions (p > 0.05). However, over time (about 5-10 times), both of them showed reduced emotional reactions, with a significant difference (p < 0.01). The insufficiently physically active group had lower mean emotional response, lowest effective response, and maximum effective response values than the sufficiently physically active group (p < 0.001), while the difference in RPE between the two groups was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). From the standpoint of emotional response, the proposed model shows that HIIT or reduced volume HIIT exercise prescriptions should be utilized with caution in physical activity programs for novices and less active and chronically sick persons. The frequency, intensity, and effects of low-volume HIIT on individuals' emotional reactions and health conditions in the T2DM group are also investigated. Furthermore, this low-volume HIIT program can be successfully applied in the real-world setting of people who are not physically active enough or who are chronically unwell.

Within-Person Variation of Affective Well-Being during and after Exercise: Does the Person-Exercise Fit Matter?

Affective well-being is positively linked to regular exercise. Therefore, it is important to identify the factors that influence intra-individual variability of affective well-being. This study investigated (1) whether affective responses vary within an individual and (2) how affective responses are associated with a motive-incentive fit and a skill-task fit. A total of 107 adults (66% females, Mage = 41.79 years old, 58% doing no exercise) took part in three exercise sessions in a random order. Each session lasted 30 min with a break of 10 min between. The sessions were similarly structured but covered diverse activity incentives (e.g., figure vs. social contact vs. aesthetic movements). Intraclass correlation coefficients showed a very high within-person variation of affective valence and enjoyment across the exercise sessions. The results of multi-level regression analyses revealed that associations between perceived competence, considered to be an indicator of the skill-task fit, and affective well-being were moderate to high, whereas those between motive-incentive fit and affective well-being were low to moderate.

Recall of Affective Responses to Exercise: Examining the Influence of Intensity and Time

Affective responses to exercise are noted to be dynamic and frequently vacillate between positive and negative valence during physical activity. Recalled affect following exercise can influence anticipated affective responses to exercise and guide future behaviors. Research examining affective memory processes indicates that the recall of an experience can substantially differ from the actual experience and change over time. Grounded in the dual mode model (Ekkekakis, 2003), this study examines individuals' recall of exercise-related affect over a period of 2 weeks. Forty-two adults (26 women, 16 men; M_age = 29.64, SD = 5.69) completed two 20-min treadmill exercise trials in a randomized control crossover design; the trials were set either at a low or high exercise intensity based upon individuals' ventilatory threshold. Data analyses indicate that the affective responses to the low-intensity condition were evaluated more positively than in the high-intensity condition. Recalled affect fluctuated over a 2-week time period following both the low- and high-intensity exercise trials. A significant reduction at the 24-h recall measurement point was observed in both exercise intensity conditions. Implications for future research and health promotion interventions aiming to optimize affective responses to exercise are presented.

Affective Determinants of Physical Activity: A Conceptual Framework and Narrative Review

The literature on affective determinants of physical activity (PA) is growing rapidly. The present paper aims to provide greater clarity regarding the definition and distinctions among the various affect-related constructs that have been examined in relation to PA. Affective constructs are organized according to the Affect and Health Behavior Framework (AHBF), including: (1) affective response (e.g., how one feels in response to PA behavior) to PA; (2) incidental affect (e.g., how one feels throughout the day, unrelated to the target behavior); (3) affect processing (e.g., affective associations, implicit attitudes, remembered affect, anticipated affective response, and affective judgments); and (4) affectively charged motivational states (e.g., intrinsic motivation, fear, and hedonic motivation). After defining each category of affective construct, we provide examples of relevant research showing how each construct may relate to PA behavior. We conclude each section with a discussion of future directions for research.

Exploring determinants of recalled in-task affective valence during recreational exercise

Exercise-related affective responses, particularly in-task, have been implicated as influencing behavioral maintenance. An extensive body of literature, primarily using aerobic modes in laboratory settings, has identified a relatively consistent inverse relationship between intensity and affect. This relationship is purported to be partially accounted for by the saliency of interoceptive sensations (i.e., respiratory and heart rates, muscular effort), such that increased saliency elicits decreased affect. In naturalistic settings, exercise is volitional, individuals have comparatively more autonomy over exercise components (i.e., volume, duration, exercise intensity), and less is known regarding contributing factors of affective responses. Recalled affect may be perceived as a less invasive, more logistically feasible construct to measure in such settings. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to explore the basis of recalled affective valence following an acute bout of volitional exercise. Upon leaving the designated exercise area of a university recreation center, respondents (N = 236, 23y±10, 176cm±9.5, 76.9kg±16.2, 31.8% identified women, 68.2% identified men) were asked to complete a pen-and-paper survey regarding the bout they had just completed. Recalled affective valence was rated via 100 mm Visual Analog Scale, and respondents were asked to provide written explanation for the basis of recalled affective valence scores. Recalled affective valence scores were non-normally distributed (Mdn=81; IQR=30.5). Qualitative results indicate that interpretation of exertion and salient interoceptive sensations were mixed, resulting in both pleasant and unpleasant affective responses. Pre-exercise readiness factors (i.e., energy levels, substrate intake, and physical components) also contribute to recalled affective valence and could potentially explain variance in the interpretation of interoceptive sensations. Further research should expand on these findings through a more in-depth interview process and measuring factors of readiness before exercise.

A Scoping Review of the Relationship between Running and Mental Health

Poor mental health contributes significantly to global morbidity. The evidence regarding physical benefits of running are well-established. However, the mental health impacts of running remain unclear. An overview of the relationship between running and mental health has not been published in the last 30 years. The purpose of this study was to review the literature on the relationship between running and mental health. Our scoping review used combinations of running terms (e.g., Run* and Jog*) and mental health terms (general and condition specific). Databases used were Ovid(Medline), Ovid(Embase), ProQuest and SportDiscus. Quantitative study types reporting on the relationships between running and mental health were included. Database searches identified 16,401 studies; 273 full-texts were analysed with 116 studies included. Overall, studies suggest that running bouts of variable lengths and intensities, and running interventions can improve mood and mental health and that the type of running can lead to differential effects. However, lack of controls and diversity in participant demographics are limitations that need to be addressed. Cross-sectional evidence shows not only a range of associations with mental health but also some associations with adverse mental health (such as exercise addiction). This review identified extensive literature on the relationship between running and mental health.

Effectiveness of Serious Games to Increase Physical Activity in Children With a Chronic Disease: Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis

Background

Physical activity (PA) is important for children with a chronic disease. Serious games may be useful to promote PA levels among these children.

Objective

The primary purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate the effectiveness of serious games on PA levels in children with a chronic disease.

Methods

PubMed, EMBASE, PsycINFO, ERIC, Cochrane Library, and CINAHL were systematically searched for articles published from January 1990 to May 2018. Both randomized controlled trials and controlled clinical trials were included to examine the effects of serious games on PA levels in children with a chronic disease. Two investigators independently assessed the intervention, methods, and methodological quality in all articles using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed.

Results

This systematic review included 9 randomized controlled trials (886 participants). In 2 of the studies, significant between-group differences in PA levels in favor of the intervention group were reported. The meta-analysis on PA levels showed a nonsignificant effect on moderate to vigorous PA (measured in minutes per day) between the intervention and control groups (standardized mean difference 0.30, 95% CI –0.15 to 0.75, P=.19). The analysis of body composition resulted in significantly greater reductions in BMI in the intervention group (standardized mean difference –0.24, 95% CI –0.45 to 0.04, P=.02).

Conclusions

This review does not support the hypothesis that serious games improve PA levels in children with a chronic disease. The meta-analysis on body composition showed positive intervention effects with significantly greater reductions in BMI in favor of the intervention group. A high percentage of nonuse was identified in the study of serious games, and little attention was paid to behavior change theories and specific theoretical approaches to enhance PA in serious games. Small sample sizes, large variability between intervention designs, and limited details about the interventions were the main limitations. Future research should determine which strategies enhance the effectiveness of serious games, possibly by incorporating behavior change techniques.

Age Moderates the Effect of Self-Paced Exercise on Exercise Adherence among Overweight Adults

Objective: The present study tested the hypothesis that the effect of self-paced exercise on adherence to exercise programs is more pronounced with increasing age. Method: Fifty-nine low-active overweight adults (18-65 years) were encouraged to walk 30 to 60 min/day and randomized to either self-paced (n = 30) or prescribed moderate-intensity (n = 29) conditions. Results: The effect of study condition was moderated by age (main effect: b = 6.14, SE = 2.54, p = .02; Condition × Age: b = -11.55, SE = 3.77, p < .01), such that among participants >50 years, those in the self-paced condition exercised 6 more min/day than participants in the prescribed moderate-intensity condition (p = .02), whereas among participants <50 years, those in the self-paced condition exercised 5.4 fewer min/day compared with those in the moderate-intensity condition (p = .05). Affective response to physical activity did not mediate the moderating effect of age. Discussion: As age increases, adults may be more likely to adhere to self-paced versus prescribed moderate-intensity exercise.

No Differences in Active Young Adults’ Affective Valence or Enjoyment Between Rowing and Cycling

Regular participation in continuous exercise modalities including running, walking, cycling, and rowing is an effective way to satisfy public health recommendations for moderate intensity continuous training. Rowing and cycling are each nonweight bearing, yet they differ, based on the size of muscle mass required. As it is unknown whether this discrepancy alters participants’ perceptual responses to exercise, this study examined differences in affective valence and enjoyment between rowing and cycling. Active men and women ( N = 22; Mage = 27.4, SD =7.7 years; Mbody mass index = 23.6, SD =  2.8 kg/m2) initially performed incremental exercise on the cycle ergometer and rowing ergometer to assess maximal oxygen uptake. During two subsequent sessions, they performed 30 minutes of graded exercise on either modality at intensities equal to 60-65%, 70-75%, and 80-85% maximal heart rate, during which we measured affective valence (Feeling Scale), rating of perceived exertion (RPE: 6–20), and enjoyment. Results showed a significant increase in RPE ( p < .001) and decrease in affective valence ( p <  .001) during exercise, but no difference in RPE, affective valence, or enjoyment in response to cycling versus rowing. In total, nine participants preferred cycling to rowing, while 13 preferred rowing to cycling. Overall, rowing and cycling elicit similar changes in RPE, affective valence, and enjoyment. Future work is needed to assess the applicability of these findings to larger and more diverse populations.

Affective responses to different prescriptions of high-intensity interval exercise in hypertensive patients

BACKGROUND

Studies have indicated that high-intensity interval training (HIIT) promotes similar acute reductions on blood pressure (BP) when compared to continuous moderate aerobic exercise. However, it has been associated with lower affective responses to exercise. Therefore, strategies to improve affective responses to exercise are needed. The purpose of this study was to verify the effect of different prescriptions of HIIT on the affective responses of hypertensive elderly women.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study. Twenty hypertensive women (65.3±4.2 years) performed four HIIT sessions: 10×1:1 at ±20% of self-selected intensity [SSI] Self20), 10×1:1 at ±30% of SSI (Self30), 10×1:1 at ±40% of SSI (Self40) and an imposed intensity session 5×2-min intervals at 80-85% interspersed with 2-min intervals at 40-50% VO2peak (ImpVO2) and one control session with participants remaining in the sitting position for 28 minutes. Affect response, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR) were recorded every five minutes during exercise, and systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and HR were assessed before and after sessions. The effect of session and moment on the psychophysiological variables was examined by analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Affect was lower in the ImpVO2 when compared to SSI sessions. There was no difference in RPE between sessions. The percentage of HRpeak was higher in ImpVO2 compared to SSI sessions. There were no differences in SBP and DBP responses between the sessions.

CONCLUSIONS

HIIT prescribed based on SSI promoted higher affective responses than HIIT prescribed from 80-85%/40-50% VO2peak with similar BP responses.

Great Expectations: A Qualitative Analysis of the Factors That Influence Affective Forecasts for Exercise

The extent to which people expect to feel pleasure during exercise is proposed to influence an individual’s decision to be active. In order to identify the factors that shape this affective forecast for exercise, this study explored what people think about when creating their affective forecast for exercise. Thirty-one inactive participants provided an affective forecast for a moderate intensity exercise session using the global affective forecast questionnaire. Immediately after, they were asked a series of questions to verbally explain what they were thinking about in order to generate their forecast. Thematic analysis identified four themes relating to the exercise intensity, the exercise outcomes, the exercise environment, and the enjoyment of exercise that influenced affective forecast creation. Exercise practitioners should design strategies to manipulate these factors, and structure exercise environments to support a positive affective forecast and better motivate exercise participation.

Similar perceptual responses to reduced exertion high intensity interval training (REHIT) in adults differing in cardiorespiratory fitness

Reduced exertion high intensity interval training (REHIT) is an extremely low-volume approach of sprint interval exercise (SIE) that increases maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) and reduces body fat. However, there are concerns regarding implementation of SIE including REHIT in untrained populations due to generation of supramaximal power outputs and potential feelings of displeasure. This study examined perceptual responses to a single REHIT session in adults with above (n = 43, VO₂max = 41 ± 6 mL/kg/min) and below average VO₂max (n = 42, VO₂max = 33 ± 5 mL/kg/min). Initially, incremental exercise was completed to determine VO₂max. Subsequently, participants completed REHIT consisting of two 20 s "all-out" sprints at resistance equal to 5 % body mass. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE), affective valence, and physical activity enjoyment (PACES) were determined. Tolerance and preference to exercise intensity were also measured to examine if they moderated the responses. Compared to participants with below average VO₂max, those with above average VO₂max revealed similar change in affective valence (p = 0.86), RPE (p = 0.41), and enjoyment (p = 0.64) despite attaining significantly higher peak and mean power output in response to REHIT. The lowest value of affective valence ranged from 1.0-1.5, representing "fairly good." Overall, one session of REHIT elicits positive affective valence and similar pleasure:displeasure and enjoyment responses in individuals having diverse cardiorespiratory fitness, although we recommend that REHIT should be individualized for each client as greater frequency of aversive responses was shown in our participants with low fitness.

Prefrontal cortex asymmetry and psychological responses to exercise: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Studies have shown a relationship between prefrontal cortex (PFC) activation asymmetry and psychological responses to exercise, so that a higher rest activation in left rather than right PFC has been associated with positive psychological responses to exercise such as an improved affect, anxiety and multidimensional arousal states.

PURPOSE

To review: 1) evidence that PFC activation asymmetry before exercise is associated with psychological responses to exercise; 2) protocols of PFC asymmetry determination.

METHODS

A systematic review (SR) was performed on studies retrieved from the PubMed and Web of Science database up to 04-30-2019. Eligibility criteria were: 1) studies investigating participants submitted to aerobic exercises; 2) including cerebral activation measures through electroencephalography (EEG) before the exercise bout; 3) and psychological measures during or after the exercise bout; 4) original studies.

RESULTS

A number of 1901 studies was retrieved from the databases and 1 study was manually inserted. Thereafter, 1858 studies were excluded during the screening stage so that 30 studies remained for the SR. After full reading, 22 studies were excluded and 8 studies composed the final SR. Methodological assessment revealed that 62.5% of the studies showed a low risk of bias, while 34.37% and 3.12% showed either an unclear or a high risk of bias, respectively. Protocols of PFC activation asymmetry used EEG at F3-F4-P3-P4 (3 studies), F3-F4 (2 studies), F3-F4-T3-T4 (1 study), F3-F4-F7-F8-T5-T6-P3-P4 (1 study) and Fp1-Fp2-Fz-F3-F4-F7-F8-Cz-C3-C4-T3-T4-T5-T6-Pz-P3-P4-Oz-O1-O2 (1 study) positions. Most studies (75%) found a higher left PFC activation associated with a greater affect (n = 2), energetic arousal (n = 2), lower anxiety (n = 2) as well as calmness and tired arousal, simultaneously (n = 1).

CONCLUSIONS

Although the heterogeneity of PFC asymmetry protocols, reviewed studies showed a low risk of bias, suggesting that a higher left PFC activation is associated with a positive psychological response to exercise.

The Absolute and Relative Reliability of Psychophysiological Responses to Self-Selected Exercise Intensity in Elderly Women

Background: Self-selected exercise intensity (SSEI) promotes higher affect (pleasure) during exercise, but its reliability is still unclear. Purpose: to evaluate the test-retest reliability and the minimum detectable change of the perceptive and physiological responses in two sessions of SSEI on treadmill in elderly women. Method: Twenty elderly women (ages 65.3 ± 4.2 years) performed two 20-min laboratory-based treadmill aerobic exercise sessions with self-selected intensity. During the sessions, %VO_2max, %HR_reserve, affect, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded. Reliability was calculated using the intraclass correction coefficient (ICC) and Bland-Altman plots. The minimum detectable change (MDC) was also calculated. Results: ICC values were 0.98 for % VO_2max, 0.83 for % HR_reserve, 0.85 for affect, and 0.80 for RPE. No differences were observed in mean values between sessions for all the variables. MDCs were lower than 0.7% for VO_2max, 11.7% for HR_reserve, 0.7 for affect, and 0.8 for RPE. Bland-Altman plots showed a bias of 0.50% for HR_reserve, 3.2% for VO_2max, 0.05 for affect, and -0.35 for RPE. Conclusion: Self-selected intensity during aerobic exercise performed on treadmill is reliable, which promotes adequate and lower MDC values on physiological and perceptual responses in elderly women.

Affective and metabolic responses to self-selected intensity cycle exercise in young men

Self-selected intensity exercise has resulted in greater affective responses (AR) compared to prescribed exercise of similar intensity and many individuals self-select intensity at a moderate level identified by metabolic analysis. As such, self-selected intensity may be an effective alternative for exercise prescription designed to promote adherence and result in health and fitness benefits. Self-selected intensity has not been well described for many subject populations and exercise modes. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to measure affective and metabolic responses during self-selected intensity cycle exercise in college-aged men. Thirty-three men (22.4 ± 2.2 yr) performed a peak oxygen consumption test and a 20 min self-selected trial on a cycle ergometer on separate days. Oxygen consumption (VO₂) was measured continuously throughout both exercise sessions. AR were measured using the Feeling Scale and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) using the OMNI Scale every 5 min during the self-selected trial. χ² analysis was used to determine if a significant proportion of subjects self-selected intensity above 50% VO₂ reserve (VO₂R), defined as a threshold for moderate-intensity exercise and potential cardiorespiratory fitness benefits by American College of Sports Medicine. Mean self-selected intensity was 57.6 ± 11.1%VO₂peak and 89.3 ± 20.2% of ventilatory threshold. Twenty eight of 33 subjects self-selected intensity above 50% VO₂R (p < .05). Self-selected intensity was associated with positive AR (1.8 ± 1.4) and mean RPE of 4.0 ± 1.5. In college-aged men, self-selected intensity cycle exercise was performed at a moderate intensity level and elicited positive AR for most subjects. Therefore, self-selected intensity could be an effective component of an exercise prescription for this population.

Does sex mediate the affective response to high intensity interval exercise?

High intensity interval exercise (HIIE) is identified as an alternative to moderate intensity continuous exercise (MICE) due to its similar effects on outcomes including maximal oxygen uptake and glycemic control. Nevertheless, its widespread implementation in adults is questioned because acute HIIE elicits more aversive responses (negative affective valence) than MICE which may make it impractical to perform long-term. Differences in muscle mass, fiber type, and substrate utilization exist between men and women that alter physiological responses which may cause differences in affective valence, yet the effect of sex on this outcome is unresolved. This study compared changes in affective valence between active men and women (mean age = 24.0 ± 4.8 yr) performing HIIE and sprint interval exercise (SIE) on a cycle ergometer. Affect (+5 to -5), rating of perceived exertion (RPE 1-10), and blood lactate concentration (BLa) were measured before and throughout exercise, and enjoyment was assessed post-exercise. Results showed that women exhibit more positive affect (p < .05) during HIIE and SIE than men (0.6-1.8 units higher values). In addition, women exhibited lower BLa (p = .003) than men during SIE (11.8 ± 2.4 mM vs. 14.9 ± 3.1 mM). In contrast, there was no effect of sex on RPE (p = .32 and p = .54) or enjoyment (p = .24 and p = .37) in response to HIIE or SIE. Practitioners should consider the sex of their clients when assessing change in affective valence induced by interval-based exercise.

Potential Utility of Self-Report Measures of Affect to Optimise Exercise Adherence in People with Type 2 Diabetes

Exercise is essential for managing type 2 diabetes, however approximately only 40% of people with the condition meet guidelines. The aim of this review is to examine the evidence regarding the use self-report measures of affect to understand and predict exercise adherence. Self-reported affect has been successfully used to regulate exercise intensity, monitor training load, prevent injury, and predict future physical activity participation in otherwise healthy and some clinical populations. Specific recommendations are provided for research to explore the utility of self-report measures of affect to promote exercise adherence in people with type 2 diabetes.

Predictors of change in affect in response to high intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and sprint interval exercise (SIE)

Affect is typically positive at intensities below the lactate or ventilatory threshold, yet more aversive responses occur at supra-threshold intensities which may reduce positive perceptions of exercise. Completion of high intensity interval exercise (HIIE) typically elicits a reduction in affect, yet greater post-exercise enjoyment has been reported in response to HIIE versus moderate intensity continuous exercise (MICE). This study examined affectual responses to HIIE and sprint interval exercise (SIE) in 71 active men and women (age = 24.0 ± 4.8 year). Participants performed various HIIE and SIE regimes on the cycle ergometer during which affect (+5 - -5 scale), rating of perceived exertion (RPE, Borg 1-10 scale), and blood lactate concentration (BLa) were determined. Enjoyment was measured post-exercise using the PACES scale. Predictors of change in these variables in response to exercise were identified using multiple regression. Results showed a significant reduction in affect (p = .001) which was greater (p = .03) with SIE (-5.7 ± 2.7) compared to HIIE (-4.3 ± 2.4). Nevertheless, there was marked variability in the affect response across participants, as its change ranged from -1 to -7 units from pre- to post-exercise in 85% of all sessions. Sixty two percent of the change in affect seen across regimes was explained by baseline affect, BLa, and enjoyment. Significant associations were shown between the change in affect and baseline affect (r = -0.46, p < .001) and change in RPE (r = -0.59, p < .001). In addition, RPE significantly increased in response to HIIE (6.1 ± 1.7) and SIE (6.9 ± 2.0) but was not different (p = .050) between regimes. Our findings document an intensity-dependent relationship between affect and intensity during interval training, as supramaximal intensities elicit a larger decline in affect compared to submaximal intensities. In addition, pre-exercise affect is associated with the magnitude of change in affect reported in response to interval exercise.

Self-Selected and Prescribed Intensity Exercise to Improve Physical Activity Among Inactive Retirees

A randomized controlled study explored the effects of two intensity-oriented exercise interventions on affect to exercise and physical activity behavior. Inactive retirees finished the 12-week group-based exercise intervention and 3-month telephone follow-up with 27 in self-selected intensity group and 26 in prescribed intensity group. Repeated measures of daily step counts (measured by Yamax pedometers), positive and negative affect to exercise, weight, height, waist circumference, and blood pressure were done at baseline, postintervention, and 3-month follow-up. Increased daily step counts and positive affect, and reduced body mass index, waist circumference, blood pressure of both groups, and negative affect of self-selected intensity group were found at different measuring times. Although self-selected intensity group had no significantly different daily step counts from prescribed intensity group, the former had a more positive and less negative affect to exercise. Findings suggest that future exercise programs use self-selected intensity exercise programs to improve pleasure affect to exercise.

Attending to Timely Contingencies: Promoting Physical Activity Uptake Among Adults with Serious Mental Illness with an Exercise-For-Mood vs. an Exercise-For-Fitness Prescription

Despite evidence for both physical and mental health benefits achieved through regular exercise, most Americans fail to meet minimum recommendations. Altering the behavioral contingency from a focus on long-term health benefits to immediate mood benefits represents a novel method for exercise promotion. The current study examined a single-session exercise-for-mood intervention against two time-matched comparison conditions in 152 patients with serious mental illness attending a partial hospital program, a population marked by significant health disparities. This intervention was compared to a standard exercise-for-fitness intervention and a time-matched no-exercise control. Among patients with high levels of exercise prior to the partial hospital program, the exercise-for-mood intervention yielded significant increases in exercise. Implications for exercise promotion interventions among psychiatrically ill patients are discussed.

What to expect when you're exercising: An experimental test of the anticipated affect-exercise relationship

OBJECTIVE

Anticipated affect may influence exercise behavior via experienced affective responses and intentions. Cognitive manipulations of anticipated affect may inform exercise intervention design. The purpose of this study was to experimentally test the effects of an expectation-based manipulation of affective responses to exercise on anticipated, experienced, and remembered affect and adherence to a 7-day exercise prescription.

METHOD

Participants (N = 98) were randomly assigned to a positive anticipated affect manipulation, a negative anticipated affect manipulation, or a no affect manipulation control. They reported anticipated, experienced, and remembered affect during and after a standardized 30-min bout of treadmill exercise at an intensity just below ventilatory threshold. Participants were asked to try to complete the prescribed exercise daily for 1 week. Differences in affect and exercise behavior were examined across conditions, as were relationships between affect measures, intentions and behavior.

RESULTS

The manipulation influenced anticipated and experienced affective responses, but not behavior. Participants generally expected exercise to be less pleasant and more fatiguing that it actually was. Anticipated, experienced, and remembered affect were associated with intentions to exercise. Intentions and remembered affect were both directly associated with exercise behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Moderate-to-vigorous exercise can be more pleasant than people expect it to be. Additionally, encouraging exercisers to focus on the positive affective outcomes of exercise can yield a more positive affective experience than those who focus on negative affective outcomes or do not focus on affective outcomes at all. The role of affect in both reflective and automatic motivation to exercise is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Tolerance to exercise intensity modulates pleasure when exercising in music: The upsides of acoustic energy for High Tolerant individuals

Moderate physical activity can be experienced by some as pleasurable and by others as discouraging. This may be why many people lack sufficient motivation to participate in the recommended 150 minutes of moderately intense exercise per week. In the present study, we assessed how pleasure and enjoyment were modulated differently by one's tolerance to self-paced physical activity. Sixty-three healthy individuals were allocated to three independent experimental conditions: a resting condition (watching TV), a cycling in silence condition, and a cycling in music condition. The tolerance threshold was assessed using the PRETIE-Questionnaire. Physical activity consisted in cycling during 30 minutes, at an intensity perceived as "somewhat difficult" on the Ratings of Perceived Exertion Scale. While controlling for self-reported physical activity level, results revealed that for the same perception of exertion and a similar level of enjoyment, the High Tolerance group produced more power output than the Low Tolerance group. There was a positive effect of music for High Tolerant individuals only, with music inducing greater power output and more pleasure. There was an effect of music on heart rate frequency in the Low Tolerant individuals without benefits in power output or pleasure. Our results suggest that for Low Tolerant individuals, energizing environments can interfere with the promised (positive) distracting effects of music. Hence, tolerance to physical effort must be taken into account to conceive training sessions that seek to use distracting methods as means to sustain pleasurable exercising over time.

Perceptual Changes in Response to Two Regimens of Interval Training in Sedentary Women

This study examined acute and chronic changes in perceptual measures (rating of perceived exertion [RPE], affect, and arousal) in response to 2 regimens of high-intensity interval training (HIIT). Twenty-three healthy sedentary women (mean ± SD age and V[Combining Dot Above]O2max = 23.0 ± 5.7 years and 30.1 ± 4.4 ml·kg·min, respectively) were randomized to complete 12 weeks of one of 2 HIIT regimes, whereas an additional 7 women served as sedentary controls. Training was performed 3 days per week on a cycle ergometer and consisted of up to ten 1-minute bouts at moderate (60-80%Wmax = moderate intensity [MOD]) or more intense (80-90%Wmax = HI) workloads separated by active recovery. At baseline and every 3 weeks, RPE, affect, and arousal were measured during training using validated scales. Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to examine acute and chronic changes in these variables to HIIT. Data revealed significant (p < 0.001) increases in RPE and arousal and decreases (p < 0.001) in affect during acute HIIT, with RPE responses differing (p ≤ 0.05) between HI and MOD. However, acute changes in affect and arousal were similar in HI and MOD. Training led to a significant reduction in RPE, whereas both affect and arousal were unchanged (p > 0.05) after HIIT. Completion of moderate or more intense interval training reduces perceptions of RPE during training yet does not alter arousal or affect. RPE was reduced via training, yet large dependence on anaerobic metabolism during HIIT may minimize training-induced changes in affect.

Words matter: Reframing exercise is medicine for the general population to optimize motivation and create sustainable behaviour change

Exercise is medicine (EIM) is grounded in strong evidence regarding the benefits of physical activity. Despite the contributions of EIM initiatives worldwide, rates of physical inactivity remain alarmingly high. We propose a reframe of EIM for the general population to improve motivation and foster sustainable behaviour change. We draw on a solid knowledge-base to explain the value of broadening the nomenclature to physical activity and of promoting a message of well-being via enjoyable physical activity.

The Exercise-Affect-Adherence Pathway: An Evolutionary Perspective

The low rates of regular exercise and overall physical activity (PA) in the general population represent a significant public health challenge. Previous research suggests that, for many people, exercise leads to a negative affective response and, in turn, reduced likelihood of future exercise. The purpose of this paper is to examine this exercise-affect-adherence relationship from an evolutionary perspective. Specifically, we argue that low rates of physical exercise in the general population are a function of the evolved human tendency to avoid unnecessary physical exertion. This innate tendency evolved because it allowed our evolutionary ancestors to conserve energy for physical activities that had immediate adaptive utility such as pursuing prey, escaping predators, and engaging in social and reproductive behaviors. The commonly observed negative affective response to exercise is an evolved proximate psychological mechanism through which humans avoid unnecessary energy expenditure. The fact that the human tendencies toward negative affective response to and avoidance of unnecessary physical activities are innate does not mean that they are unchangeable. Indeed, it is only because of human-engineered changes in our environmental conditions (i.e., it is no longer necessary for us to work for our food) that our predisposition to avoid unnecessary physical exertion has become a liability. Thus, it is well within our capabilities to reengineer our environments to once again make PA necessary or, at least, to serve an immediate functional purpose. We propose a two-pronged approach to PA promotion based on this evolutionary functional perspective: first, to promote exercise and other physical activities that are perceived to have an immediate purpose, and second, to instill greater perceived purpose for a wider range of physical activities. We posit that these strategies are more likely to result in more positive (or less negative) affective responses to exercise, better adherence to exercise programs, and higher rates of overall PA.

Exercise Experiences and Changes in Affective Attitude: Direct and Indirect Effects of In Situ Measurements of Experiences

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between exercise experiences (perceptions of competence, perceived exertion, acute affective responses to exercise) and affective attitudes toward exercise. This relationship was analyzed in a non-laboratory setting during a 13-weeks exercise program.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

56 women and 49 men (aged 35-65 years; M age = 50.0 years; SD = 8.2 years) took part in the longitudinal study. Affective responses to exercise (affective valence, positive activation, calmness) as well as perceptions of competence and perceived exertion were measured at the beginning, during, and end of three exercise sessions within the 13-weeks exercise program. Affective attitude toward exercise were measured before and at the end of the exercise program. A two-level path analysis was conducted. The direct and indirect effects of exercise experiences on changes in affective attitude were analyzed on the between-person level: firstly, it was tested whether perceptions of competence and perceived exertion directly relate to changes in affective attitude. Secondly, it was assessed whether perceptions of competence and perceived exertion indirectly relate to changes in affective attitudes-imparted via the affective response during exercise.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

At the between-person level, a direct effect on changes in affective attitude was found for perceptions of competence (β = 0.24, p < 0.05). The model revealed one significant indirect pathway between perceived exertion and changes in affective attitude via positive activation: on average, the less strenuous people perceive physical exercise to be, the more awake they will feel during exercise (β = -0.57, p < 0.05). Those people with higher average levels of positive activation during exercise exhibit more improvements in affective attitudes toward exercise from the beginning to the end of the 13-weeks exercise program (β = 0.24, p < 0.05). Main study results have revealed that in situ experiences predicted changes in affective attitude during multi-week exercise programs. These relevant in situ experiences encompass cognitive factors, the sensation of interoceptive cues, and affective responses to exercise. Considering the predictive role of affective attitudes for exercise behavior, these findings suggest that exercise interventions should put greater emphasis on specific exercise experiences.

Cardiorespiratory fitness moderates the effect of an affect-guided physical activity prescription: a pilot randomized controlled trial

Physical activity (PA) interventions have a clear role in promoting mental health. Current PA guidelines directed toward specific PA intensities may have negative effects on affective response to exercise, and affective response is an important determinant of PA adherence. In this randomized trial of 67 previously inactive adults, we compared the effects of a PA prescription emphasizing the maintenance of positive affect to one emphasizing a target heart rate, and tested the extent to which the effect of the affect-guided prescription on PA is moderated by cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). We found the effect of an affect-guided prescription was significantly moderated by CRF. At one week, for participants with lower CRF (i.e. poor conditioning), the affect-guided prescription resulted in significantly greater change in PA minutes (M = 240.8) than the heart rate-guided prescription (M = 165.7), reflecting a moderate-sized effect (d = .55). For those with higher CRF (i.e. good conditioning), the means were in the opposite direction but not significantly different. At one month, the same pattern emerged but the interaction was not significant. We discuss the implications of these findings for the type of PA prescriptions offered to individuals in need.

Feeling of Pleasure to High-Intensity Interval Exercise Is Dependent of the Number of Work Bouts and Physical Activity Status

OBJECTIVES

To examine the affective responses during a single bout of a low-volume HIIE in active and insufficiently active men.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty-eight men (aged 25.3 ± 3.6 years) volunteered to participate in this study: i) active (n = 29) and ii) insufficiently active (n = 29). Each subject undertook i) initial screening and physical evaluation, ii) maximal exercise test, and iii) a single bout of a low-volume HIIE. The HIIE protocol consisted of 10 x 60s work bouts at 90% of maximal treadmill velocity (MTV) interspersed with 60s of active recovery at 30% of MTV. Affective responses (Feeling Scale, -5/+5), rating of perceived exertion (Borg's RPE, 6-20), and heart rate (HR) were recorded during the last 10s of each work bout. A two-factor mixed-model repeated measures ANOVA, independent-samples t test, and chi-squared test were used to data analysis.

RESULTS

There were similar positive affective responses to the first three work bouts between insufficiently active and active men (p > 0.05). However, insufficiently active group displayed lower affective responses over time (work bout 4 to 10) than the active group (p < 0.01). Also, the insufficiently active group displayed lower values of mean, lowest, and highest affective response, as well as lower values of affective response at the highest RPE than the active group (p < 0.001). There were no differences in the RPE and HR between the groups (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Insufficiently active and active men report feelings of pleasure to few work bouts (i.e., 3-4) during low-volume HIIE, while the affective responses become more unpleasant over time for insufficiently active subjects. Investigations on the effects of low-volume HIIE protocols including a fewer number of work bouts on health status and fitness of less active subjects would be interesting, especially in the first training weeks.

Relationships between Psychophysiological Responses to Cycling Exercise and Post-Exercise Self-Efficacy

Although self-efficacy (SE) is an important determinant of regular exercise, it is unclear how subjective and physiological states before, during, and after the exercise session affects post-exercise SE. The aim of this study was to clarify subjective and physiological factors affecting post-exercise SE assessed after a single exercise session at a physiologically equivalent level. Forty-three healthy volunteers (28 women, 15 men) completed an 82-min experimental session, comprising a 22-min pre-exercise rest, a 30-min steady-state cycling exercise at moderate intensity [40% of heart rate (HR) reserve], and a 30-min post-exercise rest. We measured physiological (HR) and subjective [Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE), Feeling Scale (FS)] states during the experimental session. Autonomic states were assessed by power spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) during pre- and post-exercise rest. Post-exercise SE, which was the participants' confidence in their ability to perform the 30-min exercise that they had just performed, was assessed at 30-min post-exercise. A stepwise multiple regression analysis, with post-exercise SE as the dependent variable and physiological and subjective measures of the exercise as candidate explanatory variables, showed that post-exercise SE was negatively correlated with RPE and positively correlated with FS at the end of the 30-min exercise. In addition, post-exercise SE was negatively correlated with high-frequency power of the post-exercise HRV, an index of parasympathetic function. These results indicate that post-exercise SE is related not only to subjective responses to the exercise but also to autonomic response after the exercise.

Psychometric Properties of a Short Measure for Psychosocial Factors and Associations With Phase of Physical Activity Change Among Finnish Working-Aged Men

Insufficient physical activity (PA) and poor physical fitness are risks for several noncommunicable diseases among working-aged men. PA programs have been launched to increase activity levels in the population but working-aged men have been underrepresented in these programs. The aim of the present cross-sectional study was to evaluate validity of a short scale for psychosocial factors among Finnish working-aged men who participated in a PA campaign. The study examined also the associations between psychosocial factors and phase of PA change across fitness groups. Physical fitness was assessed with a body fitness index constructed on the basis of a handgrip test, the Polar OwnIndex Test, and body composition analysis (InBody 720). The men were classified into low ( n = 162), moderate ( n = 358), and high ( n = 320) body fitness index groups. Psychosocial factors and self-reported phase of PA change were assessed with a questionnaire. Psychometric properties of the scale were assessed with confirmatory factor analysis and differences between phases of PA change were examined with one-way analysis of variance. The evaluated scale included factors for self-efficacy, goal setting, skills, and social support. Good physical fitness was related to better perceived self-efficacy and ability to manage one's PA environment. Goal setting was critical for PA change at all fitness levels. Better understanding of the interactions between psychosocial factors and PA change could help in targeting PA programs to low-fit men. Further study should examine the validity of the improved psychosocial measure.

A hard/heavy intensity is too much: The physiological, affective, and motivational effects (immediately and 6 months post-training) of unsupervised perceptually regulated training

Background/Objective

There are several practical and theoretical advantages to perceptually regulated training, including its simplicity of use and potential to influence exercise motivation. The study objective was to examine if perceptually regulated training at ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) of 13 and 15 resulted in significant increases in aerobic fitness, reductions in metabolic risk factors, and changes in motivational constructs following an 8-week training program and at follow up 6 months after.

Methods

Following stratified randomization based on estimated aerobic capacity and sex, sedentary volunteers (n = 63; men = 21) were allocated to one of three groups: RPE 13, RPE 15, and control. The participants completed baseline, post-training, and 6-months post-training assessments for aerobic fitness, metabolic risk factors, and motivational constructs. The participants' acute exercise training responses (affect, competence, enjoyment, and work rate) were also recorded.

Results

The data support the fitness and motivational construct hypotheses but not the metabolic risk factor hypothesis. Aerobic fitness increased from the baseline to post-training in both RPE groups, with the increase maintained 6 months post-training only in the RPE 13 group. Exercise autonomy increased over the training program, with exercise competence and affect more positive in the RPE 13 group than in the RPE 15. However, the training programs did not reduce the metabolic risk factors, and attrition levels were high. Unsupervised training at RPE 13 and RPE 15 did improve fitness, but as hypothesized, this was not maintained in the RPE 15 group 6 months post-training.

Conclusion

The motivational processes associated with RPE 13 regulated exercise (greater competence and autonomy and more positive affect) potentially explain the maintained fitness in this group.

An evaluation of the DEXLIFE 'self-selected' lifestyle intervention aimed at improving insulin sensitivity in people at risk of developing type 2 diabetes: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

With the global escalation of type 2 diabetes and evidence consistently showing that its onset can be prevented or delayed by changing lifestyle behaviours, there is an urgent need to translate practical, affordable and acceptable interventions from the research setting into the real world. One such approach to lifestyle interventions might be the introduction of a programme in which the individual is provided with choice and facilitated to 'self-select' an exercise programme. Previous research has shown that this is likely to be less resource intensive, an essential requirement for success outside the controlled research environment, while at the same time promoting positive responses relating to adherence, competence and self-efficacy, essential attributes for long-term success. Through a two-group parallel-randomised controlled trial, this study aims to assess the clinical and psychological impact of the DEXLIFE 'self-selected' lifestyle modification programme in adults at risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

METHODS/DESIGN

A total of 360 subjects at risk of developing type 2 diabetes are randomly assigned in a 1:3 ratio to a control (n = 90) or intervention arm (n = 270). Randomization is stratified by age, sex and body mass index. The control arm receives general information on lifestyle and diabetes risk. The intervention group participate in a 12 week 'self-selected' supervised exercise training programme accompanied with dietary advice to improve food choices. Participants are given access to Dublin City University Sport (an on-campus gym) and asked to perform four exercise classes per week. Dublin City University Sport offers over 50 classes per week, many of which are medically supervised. If weight loss is indicated, reduction in total calorie intake by 600 kcal/day is advised. Common to all food plans is <10% saturated fat intake, as well as a dietary fibre intake of >15 g/1000 kcal. Insulin sensitivity is the primary outcome measure. Secondary outcome measures include glucose function, fitness, body composition, anthropometrics, heart rate variability, lipid profiles, blood pressure, physical activity levels, dietary intake and quality of life.

DISCUSSION

"Self-selected" lifestyle intervention has not previously been evaluated in type 2 diabetes prevention and if shown to be successful could be implemented in practice immediately.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current Controlled Trials: ISRCTN66987085.

Differences in exercise intensity seems to influence the affective responses in self-selected and imposed exercise: a meta-analysis

Self-selected exercise seems to promote positive affective responses due to the perceived autonomy associated with it. The objective of the present study was to determine the magnitude of differences in Feeling Scale (FS) responses during self-selected and imposed exercise sessions. The PRISMA Statement was adopted for this meta-analysis. The search used PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, and ISI Web of Knowledge databases. A total of 10 studies that compared the effects of self-selected and imposed exercise sessions on acute FS responses were included. The screening strategy included: exclusion of studies that were duplicated between databases, abstract screening, and text screening. The standardized mean difference (SMD) between self-selected and imposed exercise sessions categorized in five intensities (equal intensity: both exercises were performed at the same intensity, below lactate/ventilatory threshold (LT/VT): imposed exercise was performed at an intensity below the LT/VT, at LT/VT: imposed exercise was performed at the LT/VT intensity, above LT/VT: imposed exercise was performed at an intensity above the LT/VT, and different intensity: both exercises were performed at different intensities and the intensity of imposed session was not reported relative to LT/VT) and an overall SMD were calculated. Self-selected exercise was used as the reference condition. The subtotal SMD values were as follows: −0.10 (equal intensity), −0.36 (below LT/VT), −0.57 (at LT/VT), −1.30 (above LT/VT), and −0.09 (different intensity) and the overall SMD was −0.41. The results of the present study indicate that the difference between affective responses in self-selected and imposed exercise sessions is dependent on the intensity of the imposed exercise session.