Comparative ultrasonographic investigations of the gastrointestinal tract and the liver in healthy and diseased pigeons

Ultrasonography of the gastrointestinal tract of toco toucans (Ramphastos toco)

Baseline data for wall thickness in healthy toucans can be used to diagnose disease in sick individuals. This study aimed to evaluate the use of ultrasonography for the examination of the gastrointestinal tract of healthy toco toucans (Ramphastos toco). Ten non-anaesthetized healthy adult toco toucans were evaluated. Food was withheld for 3 h prior to the ultrasound examination. Longitudinal and transverse images of the gastrointestinal tract were obtained using ventromedian cranial and ventromedian caudal approaches to evaluate the morphology and stratification. The wall thickness of the sections was measured: proventriculus and ventriculus, duodenum, jejunum/ileum, and cloaca. Additionally, the thickness of the mucosal layer of the duodenum and jejunum/ileum was also measured. Subsequently, the ratios of the duodenal wall thickness to the duodenal mucosa layer and the total wall thickness of the jejunum/ileum to the jejunum/ileum layer mucosa were stablished. The wall thickness of the proventriculus was significantly higher than the wall thickness of ventriculus. The wall thickness of the duodenum was significantly higher than the wall thickness of jejunum/ileum. The mean ratios of the duodenal wall thickness to the duodenal mucosa layer and the wall thickness of the jejunum/ileum to the jejunum/ileum layer were 83.15% and 80.07%, respectively. In conclusion, it was possible to assess the stomach and intestines using ultrasound examination in healthy toco toucans, due to their medium body size and no interference by surrounding air sacs.

Advanced diagnostic approaches and current management of avian hepatic disorders

Although the diagnosis of liver disease is common in avian patients, it is often based on subjective or inadequate evidence. Diagnosis of the inciting cause, determination of the severity of the tissue damage, and assessment of the remaining hepatobiliary function can be clinically challenging. A basic review of avian normal hepatic anatomy and function is included in this article as a foundation for further discussion of testing methods used to diagnose liver disease. Interpretation of abnormalities noted on the physical examination, clinical pathologic testing, and imaging studies in a patient with hepatic dysfunction are presented, and the methods of obtaining a hepatic biopsy are discussed. Therapies targeted at treating secondary complications of hepatic dysfunction and at supporting hepatocellular function and regeneration are also reviewed.