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Rivero-Hernández AL, Hervis YP, Valdés-Tresanco ME, Escalona-Rodríguez FA, Cancelliere R, Relova-Hernández E, Romero-Hernández G, Pérez-Rivera E, Torres-Palacios Y, Cartaya-Quintero P, Ros U, Porchetta A, Micheli L, Fernández LE, Laborde R, Álvarez C, Sagan S, Lanio ME, Pazos Santos IF. Decoupling immunomodulatory properties from lipid binding in the α-pore-forming toxin Sticholysin II. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 280:136244. [PMID: 39368578 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.136244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2024] [Revised: 09/28/2024] [Accepted: 09/30/2024] [Indexed: 10/07/2024]
Abstract
Sticholysin II (StII), a pore-forming toxin from the marine anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, enhances an antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response when co-encapsulated in liposomes with a model antigen. This capacity does not depend exclusively on its pore-forming activity and is partially supported by its ability to activate Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in dendritic cells, presumably by interacting with this receptor or by triggering signaling cascades upon binding to lipid membrane. In order to investigate whether the lipid binding capacity of StII is required for immunomodulation, we designed a mutant in which the aromatic amino acids from the interfacial binding site Trp110, Tyr111 and Trp114 were substituted by Ala. In the present work, we demonstrated that StII3A keeps the secondary structure composition and global folding of StII, while it loses its lipid binding and permeabilization abilities. Despite this, StII3A upregulates dendritic cells maturation markers, enhances an antigen-specific effector CD8+ T cells response and confers antitumor protection in a preventive scenario in C57BL/6 mice. Our results indicate that a mechanism independent of its lipid binding ability is involved in the immunomodulatory capacity of StII, pointing to StII3A as a promising candidate to improve the reliability of the Sts-based vaccine platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada L Rivero-Hernández
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
| | - Yadira P Hervis
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; Sorbonne Université, École normale supérieure, PSL University, CNRS, Laboratoire des Biomolécules, LBM, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Mario E Valdés-Tresanco
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; Center for Molecular Simulations and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada.
| | - Felipe A Escalona-Rodríguez
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
| | - Rocco Cancelliere
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, Rome 00133, Italy.
| | | | - Glenda Romero-Hernández
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
| | - Eric Pérez-Rivera
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba
| | - Yusniel Torres-Palacios
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
| | - Patricia Cartaya-Quintero
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba
| | - Uris Ros
- Institute for Genetics and Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne 50931, Germany.
| | - Alessandro Porchetta
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, Rome 00133, Italy.
| | - Laura Micheli
- Department of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, Rome 00133, Italy.
| | | | - Rady Laborde
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
| | - Carlos Álvarez
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
| | - Sandrine Sagan
- Sorbonne Université, École normale supérieure, PSL University, CNRS, Laboratoire des Biomolécules, LBM, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Maria Eliana Lanio
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
| | - Isabel F Pazos Santos
- Center for Protein Studies/Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba; NanoCancer, Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM), Havana 11600, Cuba.
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2
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Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Heras-Márquez D, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Structural foundations of sticholysin functionality. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2021; 1869:140696. [PMID: 34246789 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2021.140696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Actinoporins constitute a family of α pore-forming toxins produced by sea anemones. The soluble fold of these proteins consists of a β-sandwich flanked by two α-helices. Actinoporins exert their activity by specifically recognizing sphingomyelin at their target membranes. Once there, they penetrate the membrane with their N-terminal α-helices, a process that leads to the formation of cation-selective pores. These pores kill the target cells by provoking an osmotic shock on them. In this review, we examine the role and relevance of the structural features of actinoporins, down to the residue level. We look at the specific amino acids that play significant roles in the function of actinoporins and their fold. Particular emphasis is given to those residues that display a high degree of conservation across the actinoporin sequences known to date. In light of the latest findings in the field, the membrane requirements for pore formation, the effect of lipid composition, and the process of pore formation are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Diego Heras-Márquez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
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3
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Partida-Hanon A, Maestro-López M, Vitale S, Turrà D, Di Pietro A, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á, Bruix M. Structure of Fungal α Mating Pheromone in Membrane Mimetics Suggests a Possible Role for Regulation at the Water-Membrane Interface. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1090. [PMID: 32582073 PMCID: PMC7289986 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium oxysporum is a highly destructive plant pathogen and an emerging pathogen of humans. Like other ascomycete fungi, F. oxysporum secretes α-pheromone, a small peptide that functions both as a chemoattractant and as a quorum-sensing signal. Three of the ten amino acid residues of α-pheromone are tryptophan, an amino acid whose sidechain has high affinity for lipid bilayers, suggesting a possible interaction with biological membranes. Here we tested the effect of different lipid environments on α-pheromone structure and function. Using spectroscopic and calorimetric approaches, we show that this peptide interacts with negatively charged model phospholipid vesicles. Fluorescence emission spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements revealed a key role of the positively charged groups and Trp residues. Furthermore, NMR-based calculation of the 3D structure in the presence of micelles, formed by lipid surfactants, suggests that α-pheromone can establish an intramolecular disulfide bond between the two cysteine residues during interaction with membranes, but not in the absence of lipid mimetics. Remarkably, this oxidized version of α-pheromone lacks biological activity as a chemoattractant and quorum-sensing molecule. These results suggest the presence of a previously unidentified redox regulated control of α-pheromone activity at the surface of the plasma membrane that could influence the interaction with its cognate G-protein coupled receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Partida-Hanon
- Department of Biological Physical Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry Rocasolano, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Moisés Maestro-López
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Stefania Vitale
- Departmento de Genética, Universidad de Córdoba and Campus de Excelencia Agroalimentario (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - David Turrà
- Departmento de Genética, Universidad de Córdoba and Campus de Excelencia Agroalimentario (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Antonio Di Pietro
- Departmento de Genética, Universidad de Córdoba and Campus de Excelencia Agroalimentario (ceiA3), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Bruix
- Department of Biological Physical Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry Rocasolano, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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4
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Morante K, Bellomio A, Viguera AR, González-Mañas JM, Tsumoto K, Caaveiro JMM. The Isolation of New Pore-Forming Toxins from the Sea Anemone Actinia fragacea Provides Insights into the Mechanisms of Actinoporin Evolution. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11070401. [PMID: 31295915 PMCID: PMC6669745 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 06/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Random mutations and selective pressure drive protein adaptation to the changing demands of the environment. As a consequence, nature favors the evolution of protein diversity. A group of proteins subject to exceptional environmental stress and known for their widespread diversity are the pore-forming hemolytic proteins from sea anemones, known as actinoporins. In this study, we identified and isolated new isoforms of actinoporins from the sea anemone Actinia fragacea (fragaceatoxins). We characterized their hemolytic activity, examined their stability and structure, and performed a comparative analysis of their primary sequence. Sequence alignment reveals that most of the variability among actinoporins is associated with non-functional residues. The differences in the thermal behavior among fragaceatoxins suggest that these variability sites contribute to changes in protein stability. In addition, the protein-protein interaction region showed a very high degree of identity (92%) within fragaceatoxins, but only 25% among all actinoporins examined, suggesting some degree of specificity at the species level. Our findings support the mechanism of evolutionary adaptation in actinoporins and reflect common pathways conducive to protein variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koldo Morante
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
- Instituto Biofisika (CSIC, UPV/EHU), Parque Científico de la UPV/EHU, Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa (Bizkaia), Spain
| | - Augusto Bellomio
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
- Instituto Biofisika (CSIC, UPV/EHU), Parque Científico de la UPV/EHU, Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa (Bizkaia), Spain
- Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO, CONICET-UNT) e Instituto de Química Biológica "Dr. Bernabé Bloj," Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Chacabuco 461, T4000 San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
| | - Ana Rosa Viguera
- Instituto Biofisika (CSIC, UPV/EHU), Parque Científico de la UPV/EHU, Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa (Bizkaia), Spain
| | - Juan Manuel González-Mañas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Kouhei Tsumoto
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan.
- Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan.
| | - Jose M M Caaveiro
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan.
- Department of Global Healthcare, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan.
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Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. One single salt bridge explains the different cytolytic activities shown by actinoporins sticholysin I and II from the venom of Stichodactyla helianthus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2017; 636:79-89. [PMID: 29138096 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII), α-pore forming toxins from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, are water-soluble toxic proteins which upon interaction with lipid membranes of specific composition bind to the bilayer, extend and insert their N-terminal α-helix, and become oligomeric integral membrane structures. The result is a pore that leads to cell death by osmotic shock. StnI and StnII show 93% of sequence identity, but also different membrane pore-forming activities. The hydrophobicity profile along the first 18 residues revealed differences which were canceled by substituting StnI amino acids 2 and 9. Accordingly, the StnID9A mutant, and the corresponding StnIE2AD9A variant, showed enhanced hemolytic activity. They also revealed a key role for an exposed salt bridge between Asp9 and Lys68. This interaction is not possible in StnII but appears conserved in the other two well-characterized actinoporins, equinatoxin II and fragaceatoxin C. The StnII mutant A8D showed that this single replacement was enough to transform StnII into a version with impaired pore-forming activity. Overall, the results show the key importance of this salt bridge linking the N-terminal stretch to the β-sandwich core. A conclusion of general application for the understanding of salt bridges role in protein design, folding and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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6
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Biophysical and biochemical strategies to understand membrane binding and pore formation by sticholysins, pore-forming proteins from a sea anemone. Biophys Rev 2017; 9:529-544. [PMID: 28853034 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-017-0316-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinoporins constitute a unique class of pore-forming toxins found in sea anemones that are able to bind and oligomerize in membranes, leading to cell swelling, impairment of ionic gradients and, eventually, to cell death. In this review we summarize the knowledge generated from the combination of biochemical and biophysical approaches to the study of sticholysins I and II (Sts, StI/II), two actinoporins largely characterized by the Center of Protein Studies at the University of Havana during the last 20 years. These approaches include strategies for understanding the toxin structure-function relationship, the protein-membrane association process leading to pore formation and the interaction of toxin with cells. The rational combination of experimental and theoretical tools have allowed unraveling, at least partially, of the complex mechanisms involved in toxin-membrane interaction and of the molecular pathways triggered upon this interaction. The study of actinoporins is important not only to gain an understanding of their biological roles in anemone venom but also to investigate basic molecular mechanisms of protein insertion into membranes, protein-lipid interactions and the modulation of protein conformation by lipid binding. A deeper knowledge of the basic molecular mechanisms involved in Sts-cell interaction, as described in this review, will support the current investigations conducted by our group which focus on the design of immunotoxins against tumor cells and antigen-releasing systems to cell cytosol as Sts-based vaccine platforms.
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García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-del-Pozo Á. The Metamorphic Transformation of a Water-Soluble Monomeric Protein Into an Oligomeric Transmembrane Pore. ADVANCES IN BIOMEMBRANES AND LIPID SELF-ASSEMBLY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.abl.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Evolution of the Cytolytic Pore-Forming Proteins (Actinoporins) in Sea Anemones. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8120368. [PMID: 27941639 PMCID: PMC5198562 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8120368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Sea anemones (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, and Actiniaria) use toxic peptides to incapacitate and immobilize prey and to deter potential predators. Their toxin arsenal is complex, targeting a variety of functionally important protein complexes and macromolecules involved in cellular homeostasis. Among these, actinoporins are one of the better characterized toxins; these venom proteins form a pore in cellular membranes containing sphingomyelin. We used a combined bioinformatic and phylogenetic approach to investigate how actinoporins have evolved across three superfamilies of sea anemones (Actinioidea, Metridioidea, and Actinostoloidea). Our analysis identified 90 candidate actinoporins across 20 species. We also found clusters of six actinoporin-like genes in five species of sea anemone (Nematostella vectensis, Stomphia coccinea, Epiactis japonica, Heteractis crispa, and Diadumene leucolena); these actinoporin-like sequences resembled actinoporins but have a higher sequence similarity with toxins from fungi, cone snails, and Hydra. Comparative analysis of the candidate actinoporins highlighted variable and conserved regions within actinoporins that may pertain to functional variation. Although multiple residues are involved in initiating sphingomyelin recognition and membrane binding, there is a high rate of replacement for a specific tryptophan with leucine (W112L) and other hydrophobic residues. Residues thought to be involved with oligomerization were variable, while those forming the phosphocholine (POC) binding site and the N-terminal region involved with cell membrane penetration were highly conserved.
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9
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García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Morante K, Tsumoto K, Caaveiro JMM, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Differential Effect of Membrane Composition on the Pore-Forming Ability of Four Different Sea Anemone Actinoporins. Biochemistry 2016; 55:6630-6641. [PMID: 27933793 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b01007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sea anemone actinoporins constitute a protein family of multigene pore-forming toxins (PFT). Equinatoxin II (EqtII), fragaceatoxin C (FraC), and sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII, respectively), produced by three different sea anemone species, are the only actinoporins whose molecular structures have been studied in depth. These four proteins show high sequence identities and practically coincident three-dimensional structures. However, their pore-forming activity can be quite different depending on the model lipid system employed, a feature that has not been systematically studied before. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate and compare the influence of several distinct membrane conditions on their particular pore-forming behavior. Using a complex model membrane system, such as sheep erythrocytes, StnII showed hemolytic activity much higher than those of the other three actinoporins studied. In lipid model systems, pore-forming ability when assayed against 4:1 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)/sphingomyelin (SM) vesicles, with the membrane binding being the rate-limiting step, decreased in the following order: StnI > StnII > EqtII > FraC. When using 1:1:1 DOPC/SM/cholesterol LUVs, the presence of Chol not only enhanced membrane binding affinities by ∼2 orders of magnitude but also revealed how StnII was much faster than the other three actinoporins in producing calcein release. This ability agrees with the proposal that explains this behavior in terms of their high sequence variability along their first 30 N-terminal residues. The influence of interfacial hydrogen bonding in SM- or dihydro-SM-containing bilayers was also shown to be a generalized feature of the four actinoporins studied. It is finally hypothesized that this observed variable ability could be explained as a consequence of their distinct specificities and/or membrane binding affinities. Eventually, this behavior can be modulated by the nature of their natural target membranes or the interaction with not yet characterized isotoxin forms from the same sea anemone species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain.,Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | | | - Koldo Morante
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Kouhei Tsumoto
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Jose M M Caaveiro
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
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García-Linares S, Maula T, Rivera-de-Torre E, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Role of the Tryptophan Residues in the Specific Interaction of the Sea Anemone Stichodactyla helianthus's Actinoporin Sticholysin II with Biological Membranes. Biochemistry 2016; 55:6406-6420. [PMID: 27933775 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Actinoporins are pore-forming toxins from sea anemones. Upon interaction with sphingomyelin-containing bilayers, they become integral oligomeric membrane structures that form a pore. Sticholysin II from Stichodactyla helianthus contains five tryptophans located at strategic positions; its role has now been studied using different mutants. Results show that W43 and W115 play a determinant role in maintaining the high thermostability of the protein, while W146 provides specific interactions for protomer-protomer assembly. W110 and W114 sustain the hydrophobic effect, which is one of the major driving forces for membrane binding in the presence of Chol. However, in its absence, additional interactions with sphingomyelin are required. These conclusions were confirmed with two sphingomyelin analogues, one of which had impaired hydrogen bonding properties. The results obtained support actinoporins' Trp residues playing a major role in membrane recognition and binding, but their residues have an only minor influence on the diffusion and oligomerization steps needed to assemble a functional pore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain.,Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | - Terhi Maula
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | | | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
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11
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Rivera-de-Torre E, García-Linares S, Alegre-Cebollada J, Lacadena J, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Synergistic Action of Actinoporin Isoforms from the Same Sea Anemone Species Assembled into Functionally Active Heteropores. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:14109-14119. [PMID: 27129251 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.710491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the toxic polypeptides secreted in the venom of sea anemones, actinoporins are the pore-forming toxins whose toxic activity relies on the formation of oligomeric pores within biological membranes. Intriguingly, actinoporins appear as multigene families that give rise to many protein isoforms in the same individual displaying high sequence identities but large functional differences. However, the evolutionary advantage of producing such similar isotoxins is not fully understood. Here, using sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII) from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, it is shown that actinoporin isoforms can potentiate each other's activity. Through hemolysis and calcein releasing assays, it is revealed that mixtures of StnI and StnII are more lytic than equivalent preparations of the corresponding isolated isoforms. It is then proposed that this synergy is due to the assembly of heteropores because (i) StnI and StnII can be chemically cross-linked at the membrane and (ii) the affinity of sticholysin mixtures for the membrane is increased with respect to any of them acting in isolation, as revealed by isothermal titration calorimetry experiments. These results help us understand the multigene nature of actinoporins and may be extended to other families of toxins that require oligomerization to exert toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | | | - Javier Lacadena
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid.
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid.
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Lv X, Zhang J, Xu R, Dong Y, Sun A, Shen Y, Wei D. Gigantoxin-4-4D5 scFv is a novel recombinant immunotoxin with specific toxicity against HER2/neu-positive ovarian carcinoma cells. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 100:6403-6413. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-016-7487-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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13
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Rojko N, Dalla Serra M, Maček P, Anderluh G. Pore formation by actinoporins, cytolysins from sea anemones. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1858:446-56. [PMID: 26351738 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Actinoporins (APs) from sea anemones are ~20 kDa pore forming toxins with a β-sandwich structure flanked by two α-helices. The molecular mechanism of APs pore formation is composed of several well-defined steps. APs bind to membrane by interfacial binding site composed of several aromatic amino acid residues that allow binding to phosphatidylcholine and specific recognition of sphingomyelin. Subsequently, the N-terminal α-helix from the β-sandwich has to be inserted into the lipid/water interphase in order to form a functional pore. Functional studies and single molecule imaging revealed that only several monomers, 3-4, oligomerise to form a functional pore. In this model the α-helices and surrounding lipid molecules build toroidal pore. In agreement, AP pores are transient and electrically heterogeneous. On the contrary, crystallized oligomers of actinoporin fragaceatoxin C were found to be composed of eight monomers with no lipids present between the adjacent α-helices. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Pore-Forming Toxins edited by Maur Dalla Serra and Franco Gambale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nejc Rojko
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Mauro Dalla Serra
- Istituto di Biofisica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche & Fondazione Bruno Kessler, via alla Cascata 56/C, 38123 Trento, Italy
| | - Peter Maček
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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14
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Ros U, Rodríguez-Vera W, Pedrera L, Valiente PA, Cabezas S, Lanio ME, García-Sáez AJ, Alvarez C. Differences in activity of actinoporins are related with the hydrophobicity of their N-terminus. Biochimie 2015; 116:70-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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15
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The effect of cholesterol on the long-range network of interactions established among sea anemone Sticholysin II residues at the water-membrane interface. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:1647-65. [PMID: 25815890 PMCID: PMC4413179 DOI: 10.3390/md13041647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinoporins are α-pore forming proteins with therapeutic potential, produced by sea anemones. Sticholysin II (StnII) from Stichodactyla helianthus is one of its most extensively characterized members. These proteins remain stably folded in water, but upon interaction with lipid bilayers, they oligomerize to form a pore. This event is triggered by the presence of sphingomyelin (SM), but cholesterol (Chol) facilitates pore formation. Membrane attachment and pore formation require changes involving long-distance rearrangements of residues located at the protein-membrane interface. The influence of Chol on membrane recognition, oligomerization, and/or pore formation is now studied using StnII variants, which are characterized in terms of their ability to interact with model membranes in the presence or absence of Chol. The results obtained frame Chol not only as an important partner for SM for functional membrane recognition but also as a molecule which significantly reduces the structural requirements for the mentioned conformational rearrangements to occur. However, given that the DOPC:SM:Chol vesicles employed display phase coexistence and have domain boundaries, the observed effects could be also due to the presence of these different phases on the membrane. In addition, it is also shown that the Arg51 guanidinium group is strictly required for membrane recognition, independently of the presence of Chol.
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16
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Fauth EVF, Cilli EM, Ligabue-Braun R, Verli H. Differential effect of solution conditions on the conformation of the actinoporins Sticholysin II and Equinatoxin II. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2015; 86:1949-62. [PMID: 25590731 DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765201420140270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinoporins are a family of pore-forming proteins with hemolytic activity. The structural basis for such activity appears to depend on their correct folding. Such folding encompasses a phosphocholine binding site, a tryptophan-rich region and the activity-related N-terminus segment. Additionally, different solution conditions are known to be able to influence the pore formation by actinoporins, as for Sticholysin II (StnII) and Equinatoxin II (EqtxII). In this context, the current work intends to characterize the influence of distinct solution conditions in the conformational behavior of these proteins through molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The obtained data offer structural insights into actinoporins dynamics in solution, characterizing its conformational behavior at the atomic level, in accordance with previous experimental data on StnII and EqtxII hemolytic activities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eduardo M Cilli
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Tecnologia Química, UNESP, Instituto de Química, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Araraquara, SP, Brasil
| | | | - Hugo Verli
- Centro de Biotecnologia, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
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17
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García-Linares S, Richmond R, García-Mayoral MF, Bustamante N, Bruix M, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-del-Pozo Á. The sea anemone actinoporin (Arg-Gly-Asp) conserved motif is involved in maintaining the competent oligomerization state of these pore-forming toxins. FEBS J 2014; 281:1465-1478. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.12717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I; Facultad de Ciencias Químicas; Universidad Complutense; Madrid Spain
| | - Ryan Richmond
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I; Facultad de Ciencias Químicas; Universidad Complutense; Madrid Spain
| | | | | | - Marta Bruix
- Instituto de Química-Física Rocasolano; Madrid Spain
| | - José G. Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I; Facultad de Ciencias Químicas; Universidad Complutense; Madrid Spain
| | - Álvaro Martínez-del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I; Facultad de Ciencias Químicas; Universidad Complutense; Madrid Spain
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López-Castilla A, Pazos F, Schreier S, Pires JR. Solution NMR analysis of the interaction between the actinoporin sticholysin I and DHPC micelles--correlation with backbone dynamics. Proteins 2013; 82:1022-34. [PMID: 24218049 DOI: 10.1002/prot.24475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 10/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Sticholysin I (StI), an actinoporin expressed as a water-soluble protein by the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, binds to natural and model membranes, forming oligomeric pores. It is proposed that the first event of a multistep pore formation mechanism consists of the monomeric protein attachment to the lipid bilayer. To date there is no high-resolution structure of the actinoporin pore or other membrane-bound form available. Here we evaluated StI:micelle complexes of variable lipid composition to look for a suitable model for NMR studies. Micelles of pure or mixed lysophospholipids and of dihexanoyl phosphatidylcholine (DHPC) were examined. The StI:DHPC micelle was found to be the best system, yielding a stable sample and good quality spectra. A comprehensive chemical shift perturbation analysis was performed to map the StI membrane recognition site in the presence of DHPC micelles. The region mapped (residues F(51), R(52), S(53) in loop 3; F(107), D(108), Y(109), W(111), Y(112), W(115) in loop 7; Q(129), Y(132), D(134), M(135), Y(136), Y(137), G(138) in helix-α2) is in agreement with previously reported data, but additional residues were found to interact, especially residues V(81), A(82), T(83), G(84) in loop 5, and A(85), A(87) in strand-β5. Backbone dynamics measurements of StI free in solution and bound to micelles highlighted the relevance of protein flexibility for membrane binding and suggested that a conformer selection process may take place during protein-membrane interaction. We conclude that the StI:DHPC micelles system is a suitable model for further characterization of an actinoporin membrane-bound form by solution NMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aracelys López-Castilla
- Centro de Estudio de Proteinas, Facultad de Biologia, Universidad de la Habana, Habana, Cuba; Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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19
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Rojko N, Kristan KČ, Viero G, Žerovnik E, Maček P, Dalla Serra M, Anderluh G. Membrane damage by an α-helical pore-forming protein, Equinatoxin II, proceeds through a succession of ordered steps. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:23704-15. [PMID: 23803608 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.481572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinoporin equinatoxin II (EqtII) is an archetypal example of α-helical pore-forming toxins that porate cellular membranes by the use of α-helices. Previous studies proposed several steps in the pore formation: binding of monomeric protein onto the membrane, followed by oligomerization and insertion of the N-terminal α-helix into the lipid bilayer. We studied these separate steps with an EqtII triple cysteine mutant. The mutant was engineered to monitor the insertion of the N terminus into the lipid bilayer by labeling Cys-18 with a fluorescence probe and at the same time to control the flexibility of the N-terminal region by the disulfide bond formed between cysteines introduced at positions 8 and 69. The insertion of the N terminus into the membrane proceeded shortly after the toxin binding and was followed by oligomerization. The oxidized, non-lytic, form of the mutant was still able to bind to membranes and oligomerize at the same level as the wild-type or the reduced form. However, the kinetics of the N-terminal helix insertion, the release of calcein from erythrocyte ghosts, and hemolysis of erythrocytes was much slower when membrane-bound oxidized mutant was reduced by the addition of the reductant. Results show that the N-terminal region needs to be inserted in the lipid membrane before the oligomerization into the final pore and imply that there is no need for a stable prepore formation. This is different from β-pore-forming toxins that often form β-barrel pores via a stable prepore complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nejc Rojko
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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20
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García-Linares S, Castrillo I, Bruix M, Menéndez M, Alegre-Cebollada J, Martínez-del-Pozo Á, Gavilanes JG. Three-dimensional structure of the actinoporin sticholysin I. Influence of long-distance effects on protein function. Arch Biochem Biophys 2013; 532:39-45. [PMID: 23376038 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2013.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Revised: 01/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/19/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Actinoporins are water-soluble proteins with the ability to form pores upon insertion into biological membranes. They constitute a family of proteins with high degree of sequence identities but different hemolytic activities, suggesting that minor conformational arrangements result in major functional changes. A good example of this situation is the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus which produces two very similar actinoporins, sticholysins I (StnI) and II (StnII), but of very different hemolytic efficiency. Within this idea, given that the high resolution three-dimensional structure of StnII is already known, we have now solved that one corresponding to StnI in order to analyze the influence of particular residues on the conformation and activity of these proteins. In addition, random mutagenesis has been also used to produce five less hemolytic variants of StnI. All these mutations map to functionally relevant regions because they are probably involved in conformational changes associated with pore formation, which take place after membrane binding, and involve long-distance rearrangements of the polypeptide chain of actinoporins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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García-Ortega L, Alegre-Cebollada J, García-Linares S, Bruix M, Martínez-Del-Pozo A, Gavilanes JG. The behavior of sea anemone actinoporins at the water-membrane interface. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2011; 1808:2275-88. [PMID: 21621507 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2011.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2011] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Actinoporins constitute a group of small and basic α-pore forming toxins produced by sea anemones. They display high sequence identity and appear as multigene families. They show a singular behaviour at the water-membrane interface: In aqueous solution, actinoporins remain stably folded but, upon interaction with lipid bilayers, become integral membrane structures. These membranes contain sphingomyelin, display phase coexistence, or both. The water soluble structures of the actinoporins equinatoxin II (EqtII) and sticholysin II (StnII) are known in detail. The crystalline structure of a fragaceatoxin C (FraC) nonamer has been also determined. The three proteins fold as a β-sandwich motif flanked by two α-helices, one of them at the N-terminal end. Four regions seem to be especially important: A cluster of aromatic residues, a phosphocholine binding site, an array of basic amino acids, and the N-terminal α-helix. Initial binding of the soluble monomers to the membrane is accomplished by the cluster of aromatic amino acids, the array of basic residues, and the phosphocholine binding site. Then, the N-terminal α-helix detaches from the β-sandwich, extends, and lies parallel to the membrane. Simultaneously, oligomerization occurs. Finally, the extended N-terminal α-helix penetrates the membrane to build a toroidal pore. This model has been however recently challenged by the cryo-EM reconstruction of FraC bound to phospholipid vesicles. Actinoporins structural fold appears across all eukaryotic kingdoms in other functionally unrelated proteins. Many of these proteins neither bind to lipid membranes nor induce cell lysis. Finally, studies focusing on the therapeutic potential of actinoporins also abound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía García-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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