Ser/ Thr residues at α3/β5 loop of Gαs are important in morphine-induced adenylyl cyclase sensitization but not mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation

Flavors of GPCR signaling bias

GPCRs are inherently flexible molecules existing in an equilibrium of multiple conformations. Binding of GPCR agonists shifts this equilibrium. Certain agonists can increase the fraction of active-like conformations that predispose the receptor to coupling to a particular signal transducer or a select group of transducers. Such agonists are called biased, in contrast to balanced agonists that facilitate signaling via all transducers the receptor couples to. These biased agonists preferentially channel the signaling of a GPCR to particular G proteins, GRKs, or arrestins. Preferential activation of particular G protein or arrestin subtypes can be beneficial, as it would reduce unwanted on-target side effects, widening the therapeutic window. However, biasing GPCRs has two important limitations: a) complete bias is impossible due to inherent flexibility of GPCRs; b) receptor-independent functions of signal transducer proteins cannot be directly affected by GPCR ligands or differential receptor barcoding by GRK phosphorylation. This article is part of the Special Issue on "Ligand Bias".

Preassembly of specific Gβγ subunits at GABAB receptors through auxiliary KCTD proteins accelerates channel gating

GABAB receptors (GBRs) are G protein-coupled receptors for GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. GBRs regulate fast synaptic transmission by gating Ca2+ and K+ channels via the Gβγ subunits of the activated G protein. It has been demonstrated that auxiliary GBR subunits, the KCTD proteins, shorten onset and rise time and increase desensitization of receptor-induced K+ currents. KCTD proteins increase desensitization of K+ currents by scavenging Gβγ from the channel, yet the mechanism responsible for the rapid activation of K+ currents has remained elusive. In this study, we demonstrate that KCTD proteins preassemble Gβγ at GBRs. The preassembly obviates the need for diffusion-limited G protein recruitment to the receptor, thereby accelerating G protein activation and, as a result, K+ channel activation. Preassembly of Gβγ at the receptor relies on the interaction of KCTD proteins with a loop protruding from the seven-bladed propeller of Gβ subunits. The binding site is shared between Gβ1 and Gβ2, limiting the interaction of KCTD proteins to these particular Gβ isoforms. Substituting residues in the KCTD binding site of Gβ1 with those from Gβ3 hinders the preassembly of Gβγ with GBRs, delays onset and prolongs rise time of receptor-activated K+ currents. The KCTD-Gβ interface, therefore, represents a target for pharmacological modulation of channel gating by GBRs.

Receptor-Arrestin Interactions: The GPCR Perspective

Arrestins are a small family of four proteins in most vertebrates that bind hundreds of different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Arrestin binding to a GPCR has at least three functions: precluding further receptor coupling to G proteins, facilitating receptor internalization, and initiating distinct arrestin-mediated signaling. The molecular mechanism of arrestin–GPCR interactions has been extensively studied and discussed from the “arrestin perspective”, focusing on the roles of arrestin elements in receptor binding. Here, we discuss this phenomenon from the “receptor perspective”, focusing on the receptor elements involved in arrestin binding and emphasizing existing gaps in our knowledge that need to be filled. It is vitally important to understand the role of receptor elements in arrestin activation and how the interaction of each of these elements with arrestin contributes to the latter’s transition to the high-affinity binding state. A more precise knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of arrestin activation is needed to enable the construction of arrestin mutants with desired functional characteristics.

The effects of carvedilol, metoprolol and propranolol on cisplatin-induced kidney injury

The β-adrenoceptor blockers may have anti-oxidant properties or induce β-arrestin recruitment beyond classical desensitization of receptor/G protein coupling, offering potential therapeutic benefits. Here, we investigated the effects of carvedilol, metoprolol and propranolol in an animal model of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity. Rats received the β-blockers (3 or 12 mg/kg/day) with or without cisplatin, and kidney function was investigated using renal scintigraphy, histopathology, and serum variables. Metoprolol and propranolol as well as low-dose carvedilol did not alter kidney function, per se. Meanwhile, high-dose carvedilol reduced renal accumulation of Technetium-99m (99mTc)-labeled dimercaptosuccinic acid (99mTc-DMSA) without significant effect on other variables. Furthermore, low-dose carvedilol prevented cisplatin-induced reduction of tracer uptake, but high-dose of this drug aggravated the situation. In this regard, both low and high -doses of carvedilol significantly inhibited cisplatin effects on kidney histology, BUN and creatinine levels. Also, high-dose propranolol inhibited cisplatin adverse effects on radiotracer uptake, histological manifestations, BUN and creatinine levels, while metoprolol failed to cause a notable effect. Taken together, carvedilol and high-dose propranolol may offer potential benefits in cisplatin nephrotoxicity.

Low-dose angiotensin AT1 receptor β-arrestin-biased ligand, TRV027, protects against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Recruitment of β-arrestin to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), initially described to cause receptor desensitization, has recently been shown to take active roles in cell signaling. We investigated the effects of TRV027, an angiotensin AT₁ receptor β-arrestin-biased ligand, as well as losartan and valsartan on cisplatin-induced kidney injury.

METHOD

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with angiotensin receptor ligands (1 or 10 mg/kg/day) with or without cisplatin, and kidney variables were monitored using animal SPECT, histopathology, and serum parameters.

RESULTS

TRV027, losartan, and valsartan did not alter renal dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) uptake, histopathological manifestations of kidney injury, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and creatinine or Na⁺ and K⁺ levels, per se. However, when rats co-treated with cisplatin and either of the AT₁ receptor blockers at higher doses, we observed aggravation of cisplatin-induced reduction of radiotracer uptake but improvement of cisplatin-induced hypokalemia, and insignificant effect on histological findings. Furthermore, we noted an additional increase in cisplatin-induced augmentation of BUN and creatinine levels in cisplatin plus valsartan group. TRV027 (1 mg/kg/day) inhibited cisplatin adverse effects on radiotracer uptake, kidney histology, BUN, and creatinine as well as electrolyte levels, but it failed to produce protective effects at higher dose (10 mg/kg/day).

CONCLUSION

Low-dose TRV027 may offer potential benefits in kidney injury due to cisplatin.

Biased signaling of G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs): Molecular determinants of GPCR/transducer selectivity and therapeutic potential

G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) convey signals across membranes via interaction with G proteins. Originally, an individual GPCR was thought to signal through one G protein family, comprising cognate G proteins that mediate canonical receptor signaling. However, several deviations from canonical signaling pathways for GPCRs have been described. It is now clear that GPCRs can engage with multiple G proteins and the line between cognate and non-cognate signaling is increasingly blurred. Furthermore, GPCRs couple to non-G protein transducers, including β-arrestins or other scaffold proteins, to initiate additional signaling cascades. Receptor/transducer selectivity is dictated by agonist-induced receptor conformations as well as by collateral factors. In particular, ligands stabilize distinct receptor conformations to preferentially activate certain pathways, designated 'biased signaling'. In this regard, receptor sequence alignment and mutagenesis have helped to identify key receptor domains for receptor/transducer specificity. Furthermore, molecular structures of GPCRs bound to different ligands or transducers have provided detailed insights into mechanisms of coupling selectivity. However, receptor dimerization, compartmentalization, and trafficking, receptor-transducer-effector stoichiometry, and ligand residence and exposure times can each affect GPCR coupling. Extrinsic factors including cell type or assay conditions can also influence receptor signaling. Understanding these factors may lead to the development of improved biased ligands with the potential to enhance therapeutic benefit, while minimizing adverse effects. In this review, evidence for ligand-specific GPCR signaling toward different transducers or pathways is elaborated. Furthermore, molecular determinants of biased signaling toward these pathways and relevant examples of the potential clinical benefits and pitfalls of biased ligands are discussed.

The Neuroprotective Effect of Lithium in cannabinoid Dependence is Mediated through Modulation of Cyclic AMP, ERK1/2 and GSK-3β Phosphorylation in Cerebellar Granular Neurons of Rat

Lithium (Li), a glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) inhibitor, has used to attenuate the cannabinoid-induced dependence/withdrawal signs, but molecular mechanisms related to this are unclear. Recent studies indicate the involvement of upstream extracellular signal kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) and downstream GSK-3β pathways in the development of cannabinoid-induced dependence. This is mediated through cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) enriched in cerebellar granular neurons (CGNs). Accordingly, the present study aimed to investigate the mechanism of modulatory/neuroprotective effects of Li on a cannabinoid agonist (WIN 55,212-2 (WIN))-induced dependence, through quantitative analysis of some involved proteins such as ERK1/2, GSK-3β and related signaling pathways including their phosphorylated forms; and cAMP level as the other molecular mechanisms leading to dependence, in CGNs model. The CGNs were prepared from 7-day-old Wistar rat pup in a 12-well plate, pretreated with Li (1mM) and an ERK1/2 inhibitor SL327 (SL, 10 µM). The WIN (1 µM) was added 30 minutes prior to treatment and AM251 (AM, 1 µM), as a cannabinoid antagonist was co-treated with WIN. The cAMP level, as an indicator of cannabinoid-induced dependence, was measured by ELISA following forskolin (FSK) stimulation. Western blot analyses determined the phosphorylated forms of ERK1/2 (p-ERK1/2), GSK-3β (p-GSK-3β) as well as their total expressions in various treatment times and doses in CGNs. WIN alone could down regulate the cAMP/p-ERK1/2 cascade compared to AM treatment. However, P-GSK-3β was up-regulated with Li and WIN or with SL and Li pretreatment to AM-induced cellular response, which was the highest 60 minutes after CGNs exposure. Results further suggested the potential role of Li pretreatment to diminish the development of cannabinoid-induced dependence/neuronal injury through possible mechanisms of modulating the cAMP/p-ERK1/2 cascade independent of p-GSK-3β signaling pathway in-vitro.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2012

This paper is the thirty-fifth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2012 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).

Pioglitazone potentiates development of morphine-dependence in mice: possible role of NO/cGMP pathway

Peroxizome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is highly expressed in the central nervous system where it modulates numerous gene transcriptions. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression could be modified by simulation of PPARγ which in turn activates nitric oxide (NO)/soluble guanylyl-cyclase (sGC)/cyclic guanosine mono phosphate (cGMP) pathway. It is well known that NO/cGMP pathway possesses pivotal role in the development of opioid dependence and this study is aimed to investigate the effect of PPARγ stimulation on opioid dependence in mice as well as human glioblastoma cell line. Pioglitazone potentiated naloxone-induced withdrawal syndrome in morphine dependent mice in vivo. While selective inhibition of PPARγ, neuronal NOS or GC could reverse the pioglitazone-induced potentiation of morphine withdrawal signs; sildenafil, a phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor amplified its effect. We also showed that nitrite levels in the hippocampus were significantly elevated in pioglitazone-treated morphine dependent mice. In the human glioblastoma (U87) cell line, rendered dependent to morphine, cAMP levels did not show any alteration after chronic pioglitazone administration while cGMP measurement revealed a significant rise. We were unable to show a significant alteration in neuronal NOS mRNA expressions by pioglitazone in mice hippocampus or U87 cells. Our results suggest that pioglitazone has the ability to enhance morphine-dependence and to augment morphine withdrawal signs. The possible pathway underlying this effect is through activation of NO/GC/cGMP pathway.