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Domingos SS, Alves Silva E. Effect of ants on herbivory levels of Inga laurina: the interplay between space and time in an urban area. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467423000044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Extrafloral nectary plants not only occur in natural areas but also in urban parks. These areas are prone to edge effects, and plants face different microenvironmental conditions. We investigated the spatial variation of ant–plant interactions in an urban park, and we examined if plants with ants would show lower herbivory levels and if it depended on habitat type (interior or edges). Seedlings of Inga laurina were set in 200-m long transects (which covered both the west and east edges, and the interior) in an urban park and then experimentally assigned to be either ant-present or ant-excluded plants. Leaf herbivory was investigated throughout the wet season and was influenced by the interaction effect between ants and habitat type. Ants decreased the herbivory on the west edge, but on the east edge results were the opposite. The east edge had higher temperature and sunlight exposure in comparison to the other sites and was assumed to disrupt the stability of ant–plant interactions. In the interior of the fragment, herbivory depended on ant presence/absence and on the location of plants along the transect. Our study highlights how the outcomes of ant–plant interactions are spatially conditioned and affected by different types of habitats.
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Lev‐Yadun S. The phenomenon of red and yellow autumn leaves: Hypotheses, agreements and disagreements. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1245-1282. [PMID: 35975328 PMCID: PMC9804425 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Yellow and red autumn leaves are typical of many temperate/boreal woody plants. Since the 19th century, it has been either considered the non-functional outcome of chlorophyll degradation that unmasks the pre-existing yellow and red pigments or that the de novo synthesis of red anthocyanins in autumn leaves indicated that it should have a physiological function, although it was commonly ignored. Defending free amino acids and various other resources released especially following the breakdown of the photosynthetic system, and mobilizing them for storage in other organs before leaf fall, is the cornerstone of both the physiological and anti-herbivory hypotheses about the functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration. The complicated phenomenon of conspicuous autumn leaf colouration has received significant attention since the year 2000, especially because ecologists started paying attention to its anti-herbivory potential. The obvious imperfection of the hypotheses put forth in several papers stimulated many other scientists. Hot debates among physiologists, among ecologists, and between physiologists and ecologists have been common since the year 2000, first because the various functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration are non-exclusive, and second because many scientists were trained to focus on a single subject. Here, I will review the debates, especially between the photoprotective and the anti-herbivory hypotheses, and describe both the progress in their understanding and the required progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev‐Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural SciencesUniversity of HaifaTivonIsrael
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da Silva‐Viana CB, Vicente RE, Kaminski LA, Izzo TJ. Beyond the gardens: The extended mutualism from ant‐garden ants to nectary‐bearing plants growing in Amazon tree‐fall gaps. Biotropica 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ricardo E. Vicente
- Departamento de Botânica e Ecologia Instituto de Biologia da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso Cuiabá Brasil
- Laboratório de Anatomia Vegetal Departamento de Ciências Biológicas Centro de Pesquisa e Tecnologia da Amazônia Meridional ‐ CEPTAM Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso – UNEMAT Alta Floresta, Mato Grosso Brazil
| | - Lucas A. Kaminski
- Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brazil
| | - Thiago J. Izzo
- Departamento de Botânica e Ecologia Instituto de Biologia da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso Cuiabá Brasil
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Magalhães VBDS, Ferro VG. Are ants attracted to herbivorized leaves of Caryocar brasiliense Camb. (Caryocaraceae)? BIOTA NEOTROPICA 2020. [DOI: 10.1590/1676-0611-bn-2020-0992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Different profiles of secondary compounds are released by plants after herbivore attack. Many of these compounds are used by predators and parasitoids to locate herbivores that are damaging leaves. Such an induced indirect defense was tested with the Caryocar brasiliense-ant system in the dry season, when C. brasiliense has old leaves, and in the rainy season, when C. brasiliense has new leaves. A total of 20 plants were analyzed per season. Two opposite leaves of the same branch were selected for each plant. Approximately 40% of the area of one leaf was removed (treatment leaf) while the other leaf remained intact (control). The number of ants that visited each leaf was counted simultaneously for a period of 15 minutes and the mean difference in ant number was tested by paired t-test. The mean number of ants differed significantly between treatment and control only in the rainy season (t = 3.004, df = 19, p = 0.007). This finding suggests the presence of induced defense in this system only when the leaves are young. The study supports the Optimal Defense Theory since young leaves of C. brasiliense with artificial damage attracted significantly more ants than leaves without damage and represents the first evidence of an induced defense mechanism in the C. brasiliense-ant system.
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Coley PD, Endara MJ, Kursar TA. Consequences of interspecific variation in defenses and herbivore host choice for the ecology and evolution of Inga, a speciose rainforest tree. Oecologia 2018; 187:361-376. [PMID: 29428967 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4080-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We summarize work on a speciose Neotropical tree genus, Inga (Fabaceae), examining how interspecific variation in anti-herbivore defenses may have evolved, how defenses shape host choice by herbivores and how they might regulate community composition and influence species radiations. Defenses of expanding leaves include secondary metabolites, extrafloral nectaries, rapid leaf expansion, trichomes, and synchrony and timing of leaf production. These six classes of defenses are orthogonal, supporting independent evolutionary trajectories. Moreover, only trichomes show a phylogenetic signature, suggesting evolutionary lability in nearly all defenses. The interspecific diversity in secondary metabolite profiles does not arise from the evolution of novel compounds, but from novel combinations of common compounds, presumably due to changes in gene regulation. Herbivore host choice is determined by plant defensive traits, not host phylogeny. Neighboring plants escape each other's pests if their defenses differ enough, thereby enforcing the high local diversity typical of tropical forests. Related herbivores feed on hosts with similar defenses, implying that there are phylogenetic constraints placed on the herbivore traits that are associated with host use. Divergence in defensive traits among Inga appears to be driven by herbivore pressure. However, the lack of congruence between herbivore and host phylogeny suggests that herbivores are tracking defenses, choosing hosts based on traits for which they already have adaptations. There is, therefore, an asymmetry in the host-herbivore evolutionary arms race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phyllis D Coley
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA. .,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Republic of Panama.
| | - María-José Endara
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.,Centro de Investigación de la Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático e Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Recursos Genéticos, Facultad de Ciencias de Medio Ambiente, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, EC170103, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Thomas A Kursar
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Republic of Panama
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Selaković S, Vujić V, Stanisavljević N, Jovanović Ž, Radović S, Cvetković D. Ontogenetic stage, plant vigor and sex mediate herbivory loads in a dioecious understory herb. ACTA OECOLOGICA 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actao.2017.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Bixenmann RJ, Coley PD, Weinhold A, Kursar TA. High herbivore pressure favors constitutive over induced defense. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:6037-49. [PMID: 27648224 PMCID: PMC5016630 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Theoretical and empirical studies show that, when past or current herbivory is a reliable cue of future attack and defenses are costly, defenses can be induced only when needed and thereby permit investment in other functions such as growth or reproduction. Theory also states that, in environments where herbivory is constantly high, constitutive defenses should be favored. Here, we present data to support the second aspect of the induced resistance hypothesis. We examined herbivore-induced responses for four species of Inga (Fabaceae), a common canopy tree in Neotropical forests. We quantified chemical defenses of expanding leaves, including phenolic, saponin and toxic amino acids, in experimental field treatments with and without caterpillars. Because young leaves lack fiber and are higher in protein than mature leaves, they typically lose >25% of their leaf area during the few weeks of expansion. We predicted that the high rates of attack would select for investment in constitutive defenses over induction. Our data show that chemical defenses were quite unresponsive to herbivory. We demonstrated that expanding leaves showed no or only small increases in investment in secondary metabolites, and no qualitative changes in the phenolic compound profile in response to herbivory. The proteinogenic amino acid tyrosine, which can be toxic at high concentrations, showed the greatest levels of induction. SYNTHESIS These results provide some of the first support for theoretical predictions that the evolution of induced vs. constitutive defenses depends on the risk of herbivory. In habitats with constant and high potential losses to herbivores, such as tropical rainforests, high investments in constitutive defenses are favored over induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. Bixenmann
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Utah257S 1400ESalt Lake CityUtah84112
| | - Phyllis D. Coley
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Utah257S 1400ESalt Lake CityUtah84112
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstituteBox 0843‐03092BalboaRepublic of Panama
| | - Alexander Weinhold
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Utah257S 1400ESalt Lake CityUtah84112
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Halle‐Jena‐LeipzigDeutscher Platz 5eLeipzig04103Germany
| | - Thomas A. Kursar
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Utah257S 1400ESalt Lake CityUtah84112
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstituteBox 0843‐03092BalboaRepublic of Panama
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Godschalx AL, Stady L, Watzig B, Ballhorn DJ. Is protection against florivory consistent with the optimal defense hypothesis? BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 16:32. [PMID: 26822555 PMCID: PMC4730643 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0719-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plant defense traits require resources and energy that plants may otherwise use for growth and reproduction. In order to most efficiently protect plant tissues from herbivory, one widely accepted assumption of the optimal defense hypothesis states that plants protect tissues most relevant to fitness. Reproductive organs directly determining plant fitness, including flowers and immature fruit, as well as young, productive leaf tissue thus should be particularly well-defended. To test this hypothesis, we quantified the cyanogenic potential (HCNp)-a direct, chemical defense-systemically expressed in vegetative and reproductive organs in lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), and we tested susceptibility of these organs in bioassays with a generalist insect herbivore, the Large Yellow Underwing (Noctuidae: Noctua pronuba). To determine the actual impact of either florivory (herbivory on flowers) or folivory on seed production as a measure of maternal fitness, we removed varying percentages of total flowers or young leaf tissue and quantified developing fruit, seeds, and seed viability. RESULTS We found extremely low HCNp in flowers (8.66 ± 2.19 μmol CN(-) g(-1) FW in young, white flowers, 6.23 ± 1.25 μmol CN(-) g(-1) FW in mature, yellow flowers) and in pods (ranging from 32.05 ± 7.08 to 0.09 ± 0.08 μmol CN(-) g(-1) FW in young to mature pods, respectively) whereas young leaves showed high levels of defense (67.35 ± 3.15 μmol CN(-) g(-1) FW). Correspondingly, herbivores consumed more flowers than any other tissue, which, when taken alone, appears to contradict the optimal defense hypothesis. However, experimentally removing flowers did not significantly impact fitness, while leaf tissue removal significantly reduced production of viable seeds. CONCLUSIONS Even though flowers were the least defended and most consumed, our results support the optimal defense hypothesis due to i) the lack of flower removal effects on fitness and ii) the high defense investment in young leaves, which have high consequences for fitness. These data highlight the importance of considering plant defense interactions from multiple angles; interpreting where empirical data fit within any plant defense hypothesis requires understanding the fitness consequences associated with the observed defense pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne L Godschalx
- Department of Biology, Portland State University, 1719 SW 10th Ave, Portland, OR, 97201, USA.
| | - Lauren Stady
- Department of Biology, Portland State University, 1719 SW 10th Ave, Portland, OR, 97201, USA.
| | - Benjamin Watzig
- Department of Biology, Portland State University, 1719 SW 10th Ave, Portland, OR, 97201, USA.
| | - Daniel J Ballhorn
- Department of Biology, Portland State University, 1719 SW 10th Ave, Portland, OR, 97201, USA.
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Wiggins NL, Forrister DL, Endara M, Coley PD, Kursar TA. Quantitative and qualitative shifts in defensive metabolites define chemical defense investment during leaf development in Inga, a genus of tropical trees. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:478-92. [PMID: 26843932 PMCID: PMC4729263 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Revised: 11/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Selective pressures imposed by herbivores are often positively correlated with investments that plants make in defense. Research based on the framework of an evolutionary arms race has improved our understanding of why the amount and types of defenses differ between plant species. However, plant species are exposed to different selective pressures during the life of a leaf, such that expanding leaves suffer more damage from herbivores and pathogens than mature leaves. We hypothesize that this differential selective pressure may result in contrasting quantitative and qualitative defense investment in plants exposed to natural selective pressures in the field. To characterize shifts in chemical defenses, we chose six species of Inga, a speciose Neotropical tree genus. Focal species represent diverse chemical, morphological, and developmental defense traits and were collected from a single site in the Amazonian rainforest. Chemical defenses were measured gravimetrically and by characterizing the metabolome of expanding and mature leaves. Quantitative investment in phenolics plus saponins, the major classes of chemical defenses identified in Inga, was greater for expanding than mature leaves (46% and 24% of dry weight, respectively). This supports the theory that, because expanding leaves are under greater selective pressure from herbivores, they rely more upon chemical defense as an antiherbivore strategy than do mature leaves. Qualitatively, mature and expanding leaves were distinct and mature leaves contained more total and unique metabolites. Intraspecific variation was greater for mature leaves than expanding leaves, suggesting that leaf development is canalized. This study provides a snapshot of chemical defense investment in a speciose genus of tropical trees during the short, few-week period of leaf development. Exploring the metabolome through quantitative and qualitative profiling enables a more comprehensive examination of foliar chemical defense investment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha L. Wiggins
- Department of BiologyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake CityUtah
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTas.Australia
| | | | | | - Phyllis D. Coley
- Department of BiologyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake CityUtah
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstituteBalboaPanama
| | - Thomas A. Kursar
- Department of BiologyUniversity of UtahSalt Lake CityUtah
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstituteBalboaPanama
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Ballhorn DJ, Godschalx AL, Smart SM, Kautz S, Schädler M. Chemical defense lowers plant competitiveness. Oecologia 2014; 176:811-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-014-3036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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