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Beltrame G, Ahonen E, Damerau A, Gudmundsson HG, Haraldsson GG, Linderborg KM. Lipid Structure Influences the Digestion and Oxidation Behavior of Docosahexaenoic and Eicosapentaenoic Acids in the Simulated Digestion System. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023. [PMID: 37338276 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c02207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are essential for human health but prone to oxidation. While esterification location is known to influence the stability of omega-3 in triacylglycerols (TAGs) in oxidation trials, their oxidative behavior in the gastrointestinal tract is unknown. Synthesized ABA- and AAB-type TAGs containing DHA and EPA were submitted to static in vitro digestion for the first time. Tridocosahexaenoin and DHA as ethyl esters were similarly digested. Digesta were analyzed by gas chromatography, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Besides the formation of di- and monoacylglycerols, degradation of hydroperoxides was detected in ABA- and AAB-type TAGs, whereas oxygenated species increased in tridocosahexaenoin. Ethyl esters were mainly unaffected. EPA was expectedly less susceptible to oxidation prior to and during the digestion process, particularly in sn-2. These results are relevant for the production of tailored omega-3 structures to be used as supplements or ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Beltrame
- Food Sciences, Department of Life Technologies, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Eija Ahonen
- Food Sciences, Department of Life Technologies, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Annelie Damerau
- Food Sciences, Department of Life Technologies, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | | | | | - Kaisa M Linderborg
- Food Sciences, Department of Life Technologies, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
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2
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Damerau A, Ahonen E, Kortesniemi M, Gudmundsson HG, Yang B, Haraldsson GG, Linderborg KM. Docosahexaenoic acid in regio- and enantiopure triacylglycerols: Oxidative stability and influence of chiral antioxidant. Food Chem 2023; 402:134271. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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3
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Cheng Y, Zhang L, Li Z, Yang G, Chen J, Bi Y. Synthesis of DHA-enriched triglyceride through glycerolysis: Process parameters and reuse of partially inactivated lipase. Biochem Eng J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2021.108310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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4
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Ogasawara S, Ogawa S, Yamamoto Y, Hara S. Enzymatic Preparation and Oxidative Stability of Human Milk Fat Substitute Containing Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Located at sn-2 Position. J Oleo Sci 2020; 69:825-835. [PMID: 32641606 DOI: 10.5650/jos.ess19332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of human milk fat substitutes (HMFSs), rich in palmitic acid (16:0) at the sn-2 position of triacylglycerol (TAG) and rich in unsaturated fatty acids (FAs) (oleic acid, 18:1 and linoleic acid, 18:2) at the sn-1(3) positions, has gained popularity. In this study, HMFSs containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) predominantly at the sn-2 position were prepared, and their oxidation stabilities were compared. First, a non-PUFA-containing HMFS (NP-HMFS) was produced by enzymatic reactions using Novozyme® 435 and Lipozyme® RM-IM as the enzymes and lard as the raw material. Second, HMFSs, containing 10 % PUFA at the sn-2 or sn-1(3) position, were individually prepared by enzymatic reactions using lard and fish oil as raw materials. Here, sn-2-PUFA-monoacylglycerol (MAG) was extracted from the reaction solution using a mixture of hexane and ethanol/water (70:30, v/v) to produce high-purity sn-2-PUFA-MAG with 78.1 % yield. For the PUFA-containing HMFS substrates, comparable oxidation stability was confirmed by an auto-oxidation test. Finally, HMFSs containing 10 % or 2 % sn-1,3-18:1-sn-2-PUFA-TAG species were prepared by enzymatic reactions and subsequent physical blending. The oxidative stability of sn-1,3-18:1-sn-2-PUFA-HMFS was two-fold higher than that of 1/2/3-PUFA-HMFS in which each PUFA was located without stereospecific limitations in TAG. The removal of PUFA-TAG molecular species with higher concentrations of unsaturated units had a significant effect. In addition, the oxidation stability increased with the addition of tocopherol as an antioxidant. Thus, the combined use of two strategies, that is, the removal of PUFA-TAG molecular species with high concentrations of unsaturated units and the addition of antioxidants, would provide a PUFA-containing HMFS substrate with high oxidative stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Ogasawara
- Department of Materials and Life Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Seikei University
| | - Shigesaburo Ogawa
- Department of Materials and Life Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Seikei University
| | - Yukihiro Yamamoto
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Prefectural University of Hiroshima
| | - Setsuko Hara
- Department of Materials and Life Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Seikei University
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5
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Ulmer CZ, Koelmel JP, Jones CM, Garrett TJ, Aristizabal-Henao JJ, Vesper HW, Bowden JA. A Review of Efforts to Improve Lipid Stability during Sample Preparation and Standardization Efforts to Ensure Accuracy in the Reporting of Lipid Measurements. Lipids 2020; 56:3-16. [PMID: 32519378 DOI: 10.1002/lipd.12263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Lipidomics is a rapidly growing field, fueled by developments in analytical instrumentation and bioinformatics. To date, most researchers and industries have employed their own lipidomics workflows without a consensus on best practices. Without a community-wide consensus on best practices for the prevention of lipid degradation and transformations through sample collection and analysis, it is difficult to assess the quality of lipidomics data and hence trust results. Clinical studies often rely on samples being stored for weeks or months until they are analyzed, but inappropriate sampling techniques, storage temperatures, and analytical protocols can result in the degradation of complex lipids and the generation of oxidized or hydrolyzed metabolite artifacts. While best practices for lipid stability are sample dependent, it is generally recommended that strategies during sample preparation capable of quenching enzymatic activity and preventing oxidation should be considered. In addition, after sample preparation, lipid extracts should be stored in organic solvents with antioxidants at -20 °C or lower in an airtight container without exposure to light or oxygen. This will reduce or eliminate sublimation, and chemically and physically induced molecular transformations such as oxidation, enzymatic transformation, and photon/heat-induced degradation. This review explores the available literature on lipid stability, with a particular focus on human health and/or clinical lipidomic applications. Specifically, this includes a description of known mechanisms of lipid degradation, strategies, and considerations for lipid storage, as well as current efforts for standardization and quality insurance of protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candice Z Ulmer
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy NE, MS F25, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA
| | - Jeremy P Koelmel
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, 60 College Street, Room 510, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Christina M Jones
- Chemical Sciences Division, Organic Chemical Metrology Group, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Timothy J Garrett
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Juan J Aristizabal-Henao
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology & Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Hubert W Vesper
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Hwy NE, MS F25, Atlanta, GA, 30341, USA
| | - John A Bowden
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology & Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
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6
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Guo Y, Cai Z, Xie Y, Ma A, Zhang H, Rao P, Wang Q. Synthesis, physicochemical properties, and health aspects of structured lipids: A review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:759-800. [PMID: 33325163 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Structured lipids (SLs) refer to a new type of functional lipids obtained by chemically, enzymatically, or genetically modifying the composition and/or distribution of fatty acids in the glycerol backbone. Due to the unique physicochemical characteristics and health benefits of SLs (for example, calorie reduction, immune function improvement, and reduction in serum triacylglycerols), there is increasing interest in the research and application of novel SLs in the food industry. The chemical structures and molecular architectures of SLs define mainly their physicochemical properties and nutritional values, which are also affected by the processing conditions. In this regard, this holistic review provides coverage of the latest developments and applications of SLs in terms of synthesis strategies, physicochemical properties, health aspects, and potential food applications. Enzymatic synthesis of SLs particularly with immobilized lipases is presented with a short introduction to the genetic engineering approach. Some physical features such as solid fat content, crystallization and melting behavior, rheology and interfacial properties, as well as oxidative stability are discussed as influenced by chemical structures and processing conditions. Health-related considerations of SLs including their metabolic characteristics, biopolymer-based lipid digestion modulation, and oleogelation of liquid oils are also explored. Finally, potential food applications of SLs are shortly introduced. Major challenges and future trends in the industrial production of SLs, physicochemical properties, and digestion behavior of SLs in complex food systems, as well as further exploration of SL-based oleogels and their food application are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalong Guo
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Advanced Rheology Institute, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Zhixiang Cai
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Advanced Rheology Institute, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Yanping Xie
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Advanced Rheology Institute, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Aiqin Ma
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital South Campus, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Hongbin Zhang
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Advanced Rheology Institute, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Pingfan Rao
- Food Nutrition Sciences Centre, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
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7
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Broniec A, Żądło A, Pawlak A, Fuchs B, Kłosiński R, Thompson D, Sarna T. Interaction of plasmenylcholine with free radicals in selected model systems. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 106:368-378. [PMID: 28232206 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Plasmalogens (Plg) - naturally occurring glycerophospholipids with the vinyl-ether group in the sn-1 position are generally viewed as physiological antioxidants. Although there are numerous examples of antioxidant action of plasmalogen in cell cultures and in experimental animals, this hypothesis is far from being satisfactorily proven due to substantial limitations of such studies. Thus, plasmalogen reactivity in cells results in the accumulation of toxic byproducts and the experimental design is usually too complicated to evaluate the protective function of solely one type of lipid molecular species. In this study, experiments were performed in homogenous and heterogeneous model systems consisting of solutions in organic solvents as well as micelles and liposomes containing pure synthetic plasmenylcholines. Under the experimental conditions used, chemical reactivity of plasmalogens could be attributed to specific fatty acid esterification pattern. This is important because the chemical reactivity cannot be separated from physico-chemical properties of the lipids. Time-dependent formation of phospholipid and cholesterol hydroperoxides were determined by iodometric assay and HPLC-EC. EPR oximetry and Clark electrode were employed to detect the accompanying changes in oxygen concentration. Oxidation of the studied lipids was monitored by standard colorimetric TBARS method as well as MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Our data indicate that the reactivity of sn-2 monounsaturated vinyl ether lipids in peroxyl radical-induced or iron-catalyzed peroxidation reactions is comparable with that of their diacyl analogs. In samples containing cholesterol and plasmalogens, oxidative processes lead to accumulation of the radical oxidation product of cholesterol. It can be concluded that the antioxidant action of plasmalogens takes place intramolecularly rather than intermolecularly and depends on the degree of unsaturation of esterified fatty acids. Thus, it is questionable if plasmalogens can really be viewed as "endogenous antioxidant", even though they may exhibit, under special conditions, protective effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Broniec
- Biophysics Department, Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology Faculty, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
| | - A Żądło
- Biophysics Department, Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology Faculty, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - A Pawlak
- Biophysics Department, Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology Faculty, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - B Fuchs
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Germany
| | - R Kłosiński
- Biophysics Department, Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology Faculty, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - D Thompson
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - T Sarna
- Biophysics Department, Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology Faculty, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
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8
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Jayasinghe C, Gotoh N, Wada S. Pro-oxidant/antioxidant behaviours of ascorbic acid, tocopherol, and plant extracts in n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acid rich oil-in-water emulsions. Food Chem 2013; 141:3077-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Revised: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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9
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Yang D, Gan LJ, Shin JA, Kim S, Hong ST, Park SH, Lee JH, Lee KT. Antioxidative Activities ofGinkgo bilobaExtract on Oil/Water Emulsion System Prepared from an Enzymatically Modified Lipid Containing Alpha-Linolenic Acid. J Food Sci 2012; 78:C43-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.03010.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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10
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Gan LJ, Yang D, Shin JA, Kim SJ, Hong ST, Lee JH, Sung CK, Lee KT. Oxidative comparison of emulsion systems from fish oil-based structured lipid versus physically blended lipid with purple-fleshed sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) extracts. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:467-475. [PMID: 22117614 DOI: 10.1021/jf203708y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The effects of the purple-fleshed sweet potato extract (PFSPE) on oxidation stabilities of a model oil-in-water emulsion prepared with enzymatically synthesized fish oil-soybean oil structured lipid (SL) versus physically blended lipid (PBL) without modification were evaluated. The anthocyanins in PFSPE were analyzed and identified by HPLC-MS. The fatty acid composition of SL was similar to that of PBL, except palmitic acid (1.48 in PBL and 9.61% in SL) and linoleic acid (62.47 in PBL and 49.58% in SL). Peonidin 3-caffeoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, peonidin-3-(6',6'-caffeoylferuloylsophoroside)-5-glucoside, peonidin-dicaffeoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, peonidin 3-(6',6"-caffeoyl-p-hydroxybenzoylsophoroside)-5-glucoside were identified as the major anthocyanin compounds in PFSPE. Different levels (200, 500, 1000 ppm) of PFSPE were added into both SL- and PBL-based emulsions, with 200 ppm catechin as comparison. Oxidation was monitored by measuring the peroxide value and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances. The antioxidant activity of PFSPE increased with an increased concentration, the concentration of 1000 ppm showed high antioxidant ability similar to that of catechin in both PBL- and SL-based oil-in-water emulsions. It is notable that the SL-based emulsion appeared to have better oxidative stability than the PBL-based emulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu-Jing Gan
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture and Life Science, Chungnam National University, 220 Gung-Dong, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon 305-764, South Korea
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11
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The influence of drying methods on the stabilization of fish oil microcapsules: Comparison of spray granulation, spray drying, and freeze drying. J FOOD ENG 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.02.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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12
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Anwar SH, Weissbrodt J, Kunz B. Microencapsulation of fish oil by spray granulation and fluid bed film coating. J Food Sci 2010; 75:E359-71. [PMID: 20722921 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01665.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The stability of microencapsulated fish oil prepared with 2 production processes, spray granulation (SG) and SG followed by film coating (SG-FC) using a fluid bed equipment, was investigated. In the 1st process, 3 types of fish oil used were based on the ratios of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (10/50, 33/22, and 18/12). Each type was emulsified with soluble soybean polysaccharide (SSPS) and maltodextrin to produce 25% oil powders. In the 2nd process, 15% film coating of hydroxypropyl betacyclodextrin (HPBCD) was applied to the granules from the 1st process. The powder stability against oxidation was examined by measurement of peroxide values (PV) and headspace propanal after storage at room temperature and at 3 to 4 degrees C for 6 wk. Uncoated powder containing the lowest concentration of PUFA (18/12) was found to be stable during storage at room temperature with maximum PV of 3.98 +/- 0.001 meq/kg oil. The PV increased sharply for uncoated powder with higher concentration of omega-3 (in 33/22 and 10/50 fish oils) after 3 wk storage. The PVs were in agreement with the concentration of propanal, and these 2 parameters remained constant for most of the uncoated powders stored at low temperature. Unexpectedly, the outcomes showed that the coated powders had lower stability than uncoated powders as indicated by higher initial PVs; more hydroperoxides were detected as well as increasing propanal concentration. The investigation suggests that the film-coating by HPBCD ineffectively protected fish oil as the coating process might have induced further oxidation; however, SG is a good method for producing fish oil powder and to protect it from oxidation because of the "onion skin" structure of granules produced in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sri Haryani Anwar
- Insti. fuer Ernaehrungs- und Lebensmittelwissenschaften, Bereich Lebensmitteltechnologie, Univ. Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
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Abstract
Lipids are a major component of food and important structural and functional constituents of cells in biological systems. However, this diverse group of substances is prone to oxidation through various pathways. Their oxidative stability depends on a number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including the unsaturation of their fatty acids, composition of minor components, environment conditions, delivery techniques and use of antioxidants, among others. Lipid oxidation has detrimental effects on both food quality and human health, and efforts must be made to minimize oxidation and improve oxidative stability of lipid products. Antioxidant strategy has been successfully employed in the food industry for quality preservation of the food products and in the medicinal industry for risk reduction of numerous oxidative stress-mediated diseases. This tutorial review will provide important knowledge about lipid oxidation, including the mechanism and factors involved in oxidation, as well as strategies for improving oxidative stability of lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fereidoon Shahidi
- Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St.John's, NL, Canada A1B 3X9
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14
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Shen Z, Augustin MA, Sanguansri L, Cheng LJ. Oxidative stability of microencapsulated fish oil powders stabilized by blends of chitosan, modified starch, and glucose. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:4487-4493. [PMID: 20222732 DOI: 10.1021/jf904102k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Various indices of lipid oxidation were used to assess the oxidative stability of microencapsulated fish oil powders prepared from tuna oil-in-water emulsions (pH 4.9 or 6.0) containing chitosan, an emulsifying starch, and glucose. There were good agreements among the induction period for oxidation under accelerated conditions (80 degrees C, 5 bar oxygen), the development of oxidation volatile markers from fish oil (namely, propanal, 1-penten-3-ol, 1-penten-3-one, 2,4-(Z,E)-heptadienal, and 2,4-(E,E)-heptadienal), and the loss of eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) over four weeks of storage at 25 degrees C. All indices of oxidation showed that powders prepared from emulsions at pH 6.0 were more stable to oxidation than corresponding formulations at pH 4.9. It is suggested that the increased electrostatic interactions between the chitosan and emulsifying starch at the higher pH contributed to the increased stability of the microcapsule powders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiping Shen
- CSIRO Division of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Werribee, VIC, Australia.
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