Definition of Arousal and Mechanistic Studies in Intact and Brain-Damaged Mice

Suppression of thalamocortical oscillations following traumatic brain injury in rats

OBJECT

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) often causes an encephalopathic state, corresponding amplitude suppression, and disorganization of electroencephalographic activity. Clinical recovery in patients who have suffered TBI varies, and identification of patients with a poor likelihood of functional recovery is not always straightforward. The authors sought to investigate temporal patterns of electrophysiological recovery of neuronal networks in an animal model of TBI. Because thalamocortical circuit function is a critical determinant of arousal state, as well as electroencephalography organization, these studies were performed using a thalamocortical brain slice preparation.

METHODS

Adult rats received a moderate parietal fluid-percussion injury and were allowed to survive for 1 hour, 2 days, 7 days, or 15 days prior to in vitro electrophysiological recording. Thalamocortical brain slices, 450-μm thick, were prepared using a cutting angle that preserved reciprocal connections between the somatosensory cortex and the ventrobasal thalamic complex.

RESULTS

Extracellular recordings in the cortex of uninjured control brain slices revealed spontaneous slow cortical oscillations (SCOs) that are blocked by (2R)-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (50 μM) and augmented in low [Mg2+]o. These oscillations have been shown to involve simultaneous bursts of activity in both the cortex and thalamus and are used here as a metric of thalamocortical circuit integrity. They were absent in 84% of slices recorded at 1 hour postinjury, and activity slowly recovered to approximate control levels by Day 15. The authors next used electrically evoked SCO-like potentials to determine neuronal excitability and found that the maximum depression occurred slightly later, on Day 2 following TBI, with only 28% of slices showing evoked activity. In addition, stimulus intensities needed to create evoked SCO activity were elevated at 1 hour, 2 days, and 7 days following TBI, and eventually returned to control levels by Day 15. The SCO frequency remained low throughout the 15 days following TBI (40% of control by Day 15).

CONCLUSIONS

The suppression of cortical oscillatory activity following TBI observed in the rat model suggests an injury-induced functional disruption of thalamocortical networks that gradually recovers to baseline at approximately 15 days postinjury. The authors speculate that understanding the processes underlying disrupted thalamocortical circuit function may provide important insights into the biological basis of altered consciousness following severe head injury. Moreover, understanding the physiological basis for this process may allow us to develop new therapies to enhance the rate and extent of neurological recovery following TBI.

Comparing the relative amount of testosterone required to restore sexual arousal, motivation, and performance in male rats

It is well established that male rat reproductive behaviors including sexual arousal, motivation, and performance are dependent on circulating levels of testosterone (T). The present study was designed to (1) compare the relative amount of T required to restore these different aspects of behavior in castrated rats, and (2) create an animal model for clinical populations with sexual impairments. Twenty-nine male Long-Evans rats were tested before and after castration for sexual performance (copulation), motivation (partner preference), and arousal (50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations; measured together with scent marking). Sexual arousal was also inferred from copulation data. Rats were then assigned to one of four groups, and T was re-introduced via Silastic capsule implants varying in length and content: No T (empty capsules), Low T (2mm capsules), Medium T (5mm capsules), or High T (two 10mm capsules). The highest dose was intended to restore physiological levels. Results indicate that High T is required for 50 kHz vocalizations, while Medium T was sufficient for the restoration of copulation, partner preference, and scent marking. These data suggest that sexual arousal may be most sensitive to reductions in testosterone. The role of T levels in measures of generalized and specific (sexual) arousal is discussed in the context of other reproductive behaviors. Furthermore, because the Low T group showed impairments across all behaviors during post-implant tests, we propose that these animals may provide a good animal model for studying clinical conditions marked by reduced motivation and arousal, including Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder.

Experience-dependent plasticity in hypocretin/orexin neurones: re-setting arousal threshold

The neuropeptide hypocretin is synthesized exclusively in the lateral hypothalamus and participates in many brain functions critical for animal survival, particularly in the promotion and maintenance of arousal in animals - a core process in animal behaviours. Consistent with its arousal-promoting role in animals, the neurones synthesizing hypocretin receive extensive innervations encoding physiological, psychological and environmental cues and send final outputs to key arousal-promoting brain areas. The activity in hypocretin neurones fluctuates and correlates with the behavioural state of animals and intensive activity has been detected in hypocretin neurones during wakefulness, foraging for food and craving for addictive drugs. Therefore, it is likely that hypocretin neurones undergo experience-dependent changes resulting from intensive activations by stimuli encoding changes in the internal and external environments. This review summarizes the most recent evidence supporting experience-dependent plasticity in hypocretin neurones. Current data suggest that nutritional and behavioural factors lead to synaptic plasticity and re-organization of synaptic architecture in hypocretin neurones. This may be the substrate of enhanced levels of arousal resulting from behavioural changes in animals and may help to explain the mechanisms underlying the changes in arousal levels induced by physiological, psychological and environmental factors.