1
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Wada YI, Okajima Y, Oshima Y, Shimokawa KI, Okajima M, Ishii F. Single intratracheal administration toxicity study on safety of vapor inhalation of electrolyzed reduced water in rats. Drug Discov Ther 2024; 17:404-408. [PMID: 38143076 DOI: 10.5582/ddt.2023.01080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
The effects of acute intratracheal administration of electrolyzed reduced water (ERW; alkaline electrolyzed water) were investigated in rats. In this study, no deaths or near-deaths were recorded in either group, namely those treated with ERW or purified water (maximum doses of 900 mg/kg). The main symptoms observed in the rats were decreased spontaneous movements and abnormal breath sounds, which were considered to be transient symptoms caused by intratracheal administration. In addition, low values of alkaline phosphatase, total protein and lactate dehydrogenase were found in BALF tests, but these values were considered to be of low toxicological significance, since they are usually high in the presence of lung inflammation or cellular damage. This suggests that the alkalinity of ERW partially contributes to broken peptide bonds in proteins. There were no significant increases in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid protein in either group. ERW did not cause an increase in the influx of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, or lymphocytes, suggesting that intratracheal administration of ERW did not cause lung inflammation. ERW did not cause abnormalities in the body or pathological changes in the lungs. Aggregates of alveolar macrophages, as a measure of inflammation, were observed in both groups. These may be transient symptoms due to intratracheal administration, not due to ERW toxicity. This study confirmed the safety of intratracheal ERW infusion and demonstrated the low risk of acute toxicity for inhalation exposure to ERW aerosol or vapor. Therefore, ERW may be an effective air purifier against viruses or bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Imanaka Wada
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshinao Okajima
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
- A. I. System products, Corp., Aichi, Japan
| | - Yutaka Oshima
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Oita, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Shimokawa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Okajima
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
- A. I. System products, Corp., Aichi, Japan
| | - Fumiyoshi Ishii
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
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Hu M, Dong Q, Liu Y, Sun T, Gu M, Zhu H, Xia X, Li Z, Wang X, Ma Y, Yang S, Qin X. A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review of Listeria monocytogenes Response to Sanitizer Treatments. Foods 2022; 12:foods12010154. [PMID: 36613373 PMCID: PMC9818549 DOI: 10.3390/foods12010154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous organism that can be found in food-related environments, and sanitizers commonly prevent and control it. The aim of this study is to perform a meta-analysis of L. monocytogenes response to sanitizer treatments. According to the principle of systematic review, we extracted 896 records on the mean log-reduction of L. monocytogenes from 84 publications as the dataset for this study. We applied a mixed-effects model to describe L. monocytogenes response to sanitizer treatment by considering sanitizer type, matrix type, biofilm status, sanitizer concentration, treatment time, and temperature. Based on the established model, we compared the response of L. monocytogenes under different hypothetical conditions using forest plots. The results showed that environmental factors (i.e., sanitizer concentration, temperature, and treatment time) affected the average log-reduction of L. monocytogenes (p < 0.05). L. monocytogenes generally exhibited strong resistance to citric acid and sodium hypochlorite but had low resistance to electrolyzed water. The planktonic cells of L. monocytogenes were less resistant to peracetic acid and sodium hypochlorite than the adherent and biofilm cells. Additionally, the physical and chemical properties of the contaminated or inoculated matrix or surface also influenced the sanitizer effectiveness. This review may contribute to increasing our knowledge of L. monocytogenes resistance to sanitizers and raising awareness of appropriate safety precautions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minmin Hu
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Qingli Dong
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Yangtai Liu
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Tianmei Sun
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Mingliang Gu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Huajian Zhu
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Xuejuan Xia
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Zhuosi Li
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Xiang Wang
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Yue Ma
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Shuo Yang
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Xiaojie Qin
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
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Rahman MA, Sahoo N, Yemmireddy V. Analysis of Sanitizer Rotation on the Susceptibility, Biofilm Forming Ability and Caco-2 Cell Adhesion and Invasion of Listeria. Pathogens 2022; 11:961. [PMID: 36145393 PMCID: PMC9502273 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11090961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of sanitizer use conditions on the susceptibility, biofilm forming ability and pathogenicity of Listeria monocytogenes. Two different strains of L. monocytogenes and a non-pathogenic L. innocua were exposed to sodium hypochlorite, benzalkonium chloride and peroxyacetic acid at different concentrations (4 to 512 ppm) and treatment times (30 s to 5 min), respectively. Under the tested conditions, no significant difference (p > 0.05) in reduction was observed among the three tested sanitizers. A reduction of 1 to 8 log CFU/mL was observed depending upon the sanitizer concentration and treatment times. The survived cells at the highest sublethal concentration and treatment time of a particular sanitizer upon re-exposure to the same or different sanitizer showed either no change or increased susceptibility when compared to parent strains. Upon repeated exposure to sanitizers at progressively increasing concentrations from 1 to 128 ppm, L. innocua was able to survive concentrations of up to 32 ppm benzalkonium chloride and 64 ppm peroxyacetic acid treatments, respectively. At the tested sub-lethal concentrations, no significant difference (p > 0.05) in biofilm formation was observed among the tested strains. Caco-2 interaction with L. innocua showed a reduction in invasion ability with sublethal concentrations of sanitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Asfakur Rahman
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Nirakar Sahoo
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Veerachandra Yemmireddy
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
- School of Earth, Environmental and Marine Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
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Cabrera-Wrooman A, Ortega-Peña S, Salgado RM, Sandoval-Cuevas B, Krötzsch E. Antiseptic Effects and Biosafety of a Controlled-Flow Electrolyzed Acid Solution Involve Electrochemical Properties, Rather than Free Radical Presence. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10040745. [PMID: 35456795 PMCID: PMC9032035 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10040745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrolyzed acid solutions produced by different methods have antiseptic properties due to the presence of chlorine and reactive oxygen species. Our aim was to determine whether a controlled-flow electrolyzed acid solution (CFEAS) has the ability to improve wound healing due to its antiseptic and antibiofilm properties. First, we demonstrated in vitro that Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria were susceptible to CFEAS, and the effect was partially sustained for 24 h, evidencing antibiofilm activity (p < 0.05, CFEAS-treated vs. controls). The partial cytotoxicity of CFEAS was mainly observed in macrophages after 6 h of treatment; meanwhile, fibroblasts resisted short-lived free radicals (p < 0.05, CFEAS treated vs. controls), perhaps through redox-regulating mechanisms. In addition, we observed that a single 24 h CFEAS treatment of subacute and chronic human wounds diminished the CFU/g of tissue by ten times (p < 0.05, before vs. after) and removed the biofilm that was adhered to the wound, as we observed via histology from transversal sections of biopsies obtained before and after CFEAS treatment. In conclusion, the electrolyzed acid solution, produced by a novel method that involves a controlled flow, preserves the antiseptic and antibiofilm properties observed in other, similar formulas, with the advantage of being safe for eukaryotic cells; meanwhile, the antibiofilm activity is sustained for 24 h, both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Cabrera-Wrooman
- Laboratory of Connective Tissue, Centro Nacional de Investigación y Atención de Quemados, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación “Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra”, Calzada México-Xochimilco 289, Colonia Arenal de Guadalupe, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14389, Mexico; (A.C.-W.); (S.O.-P.); (R.M.S.)
| | - Silvestre Ortega-Peña
- Laboratory of Connective Tissue, Centro Nacional de Investigación y Atención de Quemados, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación “Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra”, Calzada México-Xochimilco 289, Colonia Arenal de Guadalupe, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14389, Mexico; (A.C.-W.); (S.O.-P.); (R.M.S.)
| | - Rosa M. Salgado
- Laboratory of Connective Tissue, Centro Nacional de Investigación y Atención de Quemados, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación “Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra”, Calzada México-Xochimilco 289, Colonia Arenal de Guadalupe, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14389, Mexico; (A.C.-W.); (S.O.-P.); (R.M.S.)
| | - Belinda Sandoval-Cuevas
- Wound Care Clinic, Hospital General Regional Number 2, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Calzada de las Bombas 117, Coapa, Girasoles I, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14310, Mexico;
| | - Edgar Krötzsch
- Laboratory of Connective Tissue, Centro Nacional de Investigación y Atención de Quemados, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación “Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra”, Calzada México-Xochimilco 289, Colonia Arenal de Guadalupe, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14389, Mexico; (A.C.-W.); (S.O.-P.); (R.M.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +52-1-552106-6140
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5
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Sun J, Jiang X, Chen Y, Lin M, Tang J, Lin Q, Fang L, Li M, Hung YC, Lin H. Recent trends and applications of electrolyzed oxidizing water in fresh foodstuff preservation and safety control. Food Chem 2022; 369:130873. [PMID: 34479004 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
With the growing demand for safe and nutritious foods, some novel food nonthermal sterilization technologies were developed in recent years. Electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW) has the characteristics of strong antimicrobial ability, wide sterilization range, and posing no threat to the humans and environment. Furthermore, EOW can be used as a green disinfectant to replace conventional production water used in the food industry since it can be converted to the ordinary water after sterilization. This review summarizes recent developments of the EOW technology in food industry. It also reviews the preparation principles, physical and chemical characteristics, antimicrobial mechanisms of EOW, and inactivation of toxins using EOW. In addition, this study highlights the applications of EOW in food preservation and safety control, as well as the future prospects of this novel technology. EOW is a promising nonthermal sterilization technology that has great potential for applications in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junzheng Sun
- Institute of Postharvest Technology of Agricultural Products, College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China; Key Laboratory of Postharvest Biology of Subtropical Special Agricultural Products (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China
| | - Xuanjing Jiang
- College of Oceanology and Food Science, Quanzhou Normal University, Quanzhou, Fujian 362000, China
| | - Yihui Chen
- Institute of Postharvest Technology of Agricultural Products, College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China; Key Laboratory of Postharvest Biology of Subtropical Special Agricultural Products (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China.
| | - Mengshi Lin
- Food Science Program, Division of Food, Nutrition & Exercise Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211-5160, United States
| | - Jinyan Tang
- Institute of Postharvest Technology of Agricultural Products, College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China; Key Laboratory of Postharvest Biology of Subtropical Special Agricultural Products (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China
| | - Qin Lin
- Institute of Postharvest Technology of Agricultural Products, College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China; Key Laboratory of Postharvest Biology of Subtropical Special Agricultural Products (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China
| | - Ling Fang
- Institute of Postharvest Technology of Agricultural Products, College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China; Key Laboratory of Postharvest Biology of Subtropical Special Agricultural Products (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China
| | - Meiling Li
- Institute of Postharvest Technology of Agricultural Products, College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China; Key Laboratory of Postharvest Biology of Subtropical Special Agricultural Products (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China
| | - Yen-Con Hung
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, United States
| | - Hetong Lin
- Institute of Postharvest Technology of Agricultural Products, College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China; Key Laboratory of Postharvest Biology of Subtropical Special Agricultural Products (Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University), Fujian Province University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China.
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6
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Okajima Y, Okajima M, Ikeda M, Wada Y, Shimokawa KI, Ishii F. Antiviral effect of electrolyzed reduced water on SARS-CoV-2. Drug Discov Ther 2021; 15:268-272. [PMID: 34707021 DOI: 10.5582/ddt.2021.01092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The inhibitory activity of electrolyzed reduced water (ERW) against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is the etiological agent responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), was tested in vitro on Vero E6 cells using a plaque assay. Infectious virus titers of cells treated with ERW 100%, 50% and 33.3% solutions and phosphate buffered saline (PBS, negative control) and exposed to the virus suspension for 60 seconds were 2.25, 2.65, 3.21 and 7.38, respectively. ERW has a high pH and low surface tension. It is considered that the alkaline property of ERW breaks down phospholipids and proteins of envelopes. The role of pH and reducibility on the virucidal effect of ERW should be further evaluated. This study provides a foundation for utilizing ERW as an effective antiviral aqueous solution in a variety of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mitsuo Ikeda
- A. I. System products, Corp., Kasugai, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yuko Wada
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Shimokawa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fumiyoshi Ishii
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
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7
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Application of Neutral Electrolyzed Water on pork chops and its impact on meat quality. Sci Rep 2020; 10:19910. [PMID: 33199806 PMCID: PMC7669837 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-76931-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Physicochemical and microbiological properties of pork chops sprayed with Neutral Electrolyzed Water (NEW) were evaluated during storage at refrigeration temperature. Pork chops were randomly allocated into three groups and were artificially contaminated with an inoculum of 106 CFU/mL of Listeria monocytogenes. Each group was treated with either NEW (58 ppm), NaClO (35 ppm), or saline solution (SS). Subsequently, recovered bacteria were plated on TSA petri dishes and the reduction percentage of Listeria monocytogenes was calculated 24 h and 8 days after treatment. Physicochemical analysis [pH, content of lactic acid, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN)] were performed to evaluate the effect of all solutions used on pork meat kept at 4 °C for 19 days. In vitro NEW reduced L. monocytogenes titers by > 99.98% and 80.19% and 90.35% in artificially contaminated pork 24 h and 8 days after NEW treatment, respectively. Compared to the SS treatment, NEW and NaClO solutions caused a 0.67 Log UFC/g and 0.65 Log UFC/g reduction respectively. After eight days post-treatment, NEW and NaClO bacterial titers were below the SS treatment. NEW caused little color change in treated meat. It helped to reduce the formation of lactic acid and TVB-N when pork chops are kept at 4 °C for 19 days. Therefore, NEW could be considered as a new alternative to sanitize and preserve pork meat.
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de São José JFB, Ramos AM, Vanetti MCD, de Andrade NJ. Inactivation of Salmonella Enteritidis on cherry tomatoes by ultrasound, lactic acid, detergent, and silver nanoparticles. Can J Microbiol 2020; 67:259-270. [PMID: 32956591 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2020-0013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Ultrasound (US) combined with chemical agents could represent an effective method for decontaminating fruits and vegetables. This study aimed to evaluate the use of US (40 kHz for 5 min) alone or with 1% lactic acid (LA), 1% commercial detergent (DET), or 6 mg/L silver nanoparticles (AgNP, average diameter 100 nm) as an alternative treatment to 200 mg/L sodium dichloroisocyanurate for inactivating Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis present on cherry tomatoes. The interfacial tension between sanitizing solutions and bacterial adhesion was investigated. Sanitizers in solutions with DET and AgNP had lower surface tension. All treatments, except that with DET, reduced Salmonella Enteritidis by more than one logarithmic cycle. There was no significant difference between the mean values of log colony-forming units (CFU)/g reduction in all treatments. Transmission electron microscopy revealed the loss of the Salmonella Enteritidis capsule following treatment with US and with US + LA. Salmonella Enteritidis counts (2.29 log CFU/g) in cherry tomatoes were markedly reduced to safe levels by treatment with the combination of AgNP and US + LA (2.37 log CFU/g).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Afonso Mota Ramos
- Department of Food Technology, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Maria Cristina Dantas Vanetti
- Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Nélio José de Andrade
- Department of Food Technology, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Gonçalves Lemos J, Stefanello A, Olivier Bernardi A, Valle Garcia M, Nicoloso Magrini L, Cichoski AJ, Wagner R, Venturini Copetti M. Antifungal efficacy of sanitizers and electrolyzed waters against toxigenic Aspergillus. Food Res Int 2020; 137:109451. [PMID: 33233129 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxin-producing fungi in food production environments is a cause of concern since they can contaminate food products, synthesizing toxic compounds in later steps. To avoid this, an effective hygiene and sanitation process of the environment and equipment should be adopted, using sanitizing agents with adequate antifungal efficacy. This work evaluated the effectiveness of different chemical sanitizers: benzalkonium chloride (0.3%, 1.2%, 2%), biguanide (2%, 3.5%, 5%), iodine (0.2%, 0.6%, 1%), peracetic acid (0.3%, 0.6%, 1%), sodium hypochlorite (0.5%, 0.75%, 1%), besides a new non-polluting technology, the electrolyzed water, both the acid in the chlorine concentrations of 60, 85 and 121 ppm and the respective basic electrolyzed water formed against strains of toxigenic Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus nomius, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus westerdijkiae through the methodology recommended by the European Committee for Standardization. Benzalkonium chloride and iodine were the most effective sanitizers to eliminate Aspergillus from the Flavi and Nigri section. Peracetic acid showed the best elimination of the growth of Aspergillus from Circumdati section. Sodium hypochlorite, biguanide, and electrolyzed water agents were the least effective, reducing less than 3 log from initial control, not being the most suitable agents for the control of toxigenic fungi in food industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Gonçalves Lemos
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Andrieli Stefanello
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Angélica Olivier Bernardi
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Valle Garcia
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Lísia Nicoloso Magrini
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Alexandre José Cichoski
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Roger Wagner
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Marina Venturini Copetti
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center of Rural Sciences, Department of Technology and Food Science, 1000 Roraima Avenue, 97105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.
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10
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Pienaar JA, Singh A, Barnard TG. Membrane modification as a survival mechanism through gastric fluid in non-acid adapted enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC). Microb Pathog 2020; 144:104180. [PMID: 32240767 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
In bacterial cells, the cytoplasmic membrane forms a barrier between the environment and the cell's cytoplasm. This barrier regulates which substances (and the amount) that leave and enter the cell, to maintain homeostasis between the cytoplasm and the external environment. One of the mechanisms employed to maintain structure and functionality during exposure to environmental stress is adaptation of the membrane lipids. The aim of this study was to investigate membrane alteration as a possible survival method of non-acid adapted enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) (EPEC) (as could be found in contaminated water or unprocessed food) through simulated gastric fluid (SGF). Enteropathogenic E. coli was grown in nutrient-rich media and then exposed to SGF of various pH (1.5, 2.5, 3.5, or 4.5) for 180 min. Flow cytometry was utilised to examine membrane integrity; and morphological changes were investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to assess the membrane lipid composition. The results of this study showed that SGF treatment caused membrane damage, as well as cell wall thickening and irregular plasma membranes. The morphological changes were accompanied by membrane lipid changes indicative of decreased membrane fluidity and increased rigidity. The findings suggest that non-acid adapted EPEC can perceive pH change in the environment and adapt accordingly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Anne Pienaar
- Department of Biomedical Technology, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa; Water and Health Research Centre, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Atheesha Singh
- Water and Health Research Centre, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa.
| | - Tobias George Barnard
- Water and Health Research Centre, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
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11
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Characterization of Escherichia coli possessing the locus of heat resistance isolated from human cases of acute gastroenteritis. Food Microbiol 2019; 88:103400. [PMID: 31997757 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2019.103400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify Escherichia coli isolates obtained from patients experiencing acute gastroenteritis that possess the locus of heat resistance (LHR) and characterize their heat resistance upon exposure to temperatures of 60 °C and 71 °C. From a collection of 613 clinical E. coli strains, 3 heat resistant E. coli isolates were identified. Two of the 3 isolates were stx1 positive; no isolates possessed stx2 as determined by qPCR. D60-values of heat resistant isolates all exceeded 10.20 min with one isolate's D60-values ranging from 20.46 to 72.47 min. The presence of 4% additional NaCl significantly increased D60-values of 2 clinical isolates. Cell reductions of heat resistant isolates in ground beef patties grilled to 60 °C and 71 °C remained above 2.8 and 4.9 log CFU/mL, respectively, compared to reductions of 6.1 log CFU/mL and greater in heat sensitive E. coli. Constitutive expression of novel Clp protease ClpK, encoded on open reading frame 3 of the LHR, was identified in all heat resistant isolates by SDS-PAGE and peptide mass fingerprinting. This data is the first to report heat resistant E. coli possessing the LHR involved in clinical infection, highlighting the potential threat of heat resistant enteric pathogens on food safety.
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12
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Zhao L, Zhao MY, Phey CP, Yang H. Efficacy of low concentration acidic electrolysed water and levulinic acid combination on fresh organic lettuce (Lactuca sativa Var. Crispa L.) and its antimicrobial mechanism. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Rivera‐Garcia A, Santos‐Ferro L, Ramirez‐Orejel JC, Agredano‐Moreno LT, Jimenez‐Garcia LF, Paez‐Esquiliano D, Andrade‐Esquivel E, Cano‐Buendia JA. The effect of neutral electrolyzed water as a disinfectant of eggshells artificially contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes. Food Sci Nutr 2019; 7:2252-2260. [PMID: 31367353 PMCID: PMC6657710 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.1053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) was tested as a disinfectant against Listeria monocytogenes on the surface of table eggs. Eggs were collected from a single Bovans White flock and were exposed to L. monocytogenes. Artificially contaminated eggs were divided into three different treatment groups: NEW, 2% citric acid solution (CAS), and saline solution (SS). To evaluate the bactericidal effect, the Mexican norm for antimicrobial activity determination protocol was performed. The observed bactericidal effect was compared against those obtained from CAS and SS. Bacterial cells present on the eggshells were quantified. NEW exhibited a significantly higher bactericidal effect than CAS when evaluated on the surfaces of chicken eggshells (6.11 log10CFU/ml reduction in vitro and a 2.18 log10 CFU/egg reduction on eggs vs. 1.06 log10CFU/ml in vitro reduction and 1.74 log10CFU/egg). Additionally, CAS was found to react with the carbonate egg shield, resulting in a loss of cuticle integrity. Mineral content of NEW-treated eggshells was similar to SS-treated eggshells; however, CAS-treated eggshells showed a significant decrease in phosphorous concentration compared to NEW treatment. In this study, we demonstrated the effect of NEW and CAS on the integrity of the L. monocytogenes wall using transmission electron microscopy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the effect of NEW against L. monocytogenes on eggshells. Our results show that NEW is a viable alternative solution for the disinfection of table eggs that does not affect the cuticle or shell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres Rivera‐Garcia
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (UNAM)Mexico CityMexico
| | - Liliana Santos‐Ferro
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (UNAM)Mexico CityMexico
| | - Juan C. Ramirez‐Orejel
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Department of Animal Nutrition and BiochemistryUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)Mexico CityMexico
| | - Lourdes T. Agredano‐Moreno
- Cell Nanobiology Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology. Faculty of SciencesUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)Mexico CityMexico
| | - Luis F. Jimenez‐Garcia
- Cell Nanobiology Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology. Faculty of SciencesUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)Mexico CityMexico
| | - David Paez‐Esquiliano
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Department of Physiology and PharmacologyUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)Mexico CityMexico
| | | | - Jose A. Cano‐Buendia
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (UNAM)Mexico CityMexico
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14
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Application of electrolyzed water for improving pork meat quality. Food Res Int 2017; 100:757-763. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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15
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Han Q, Song X, Zhang Z, Fu J, Wang X, Malakar PK, Liu H, Pan Y, Zhao Y. Removal of Foodborne Pathogen Biofilms by Acidic Electrolyzed Water. Front Microbiol 2017. [PMID: 28638370 PMCID: PMC5461821 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilms, which are complex microbial communities embedded in the protective extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), are difficult to remove in food production facilities. In this study, the use of acidic electrolyzed water (AEW) to remove foodborne pathogen biofilms was evaluated. We used a green fluorescent protein-tagged Escherichia coli for monitoring the efficiency of AEW for removing biofilms, where under the optimal treatment conditions, the fluorescent signal of cells in the biofilm disappeared rapidly and the population of biofilm cells was reduced by more than 67%. Additionally, AEW triggered EPS disruption, as indicated by the deformation of the carbohydrate C-O-C bond and deformation of the aromatic rings in the amino acids tyrosine and phenylalanine. These deformations were identified by EPS chemical analysis and Raman spectroscopic analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images confirmed that the breakup and detachment of biofilm were enhanced after AEW treatment. Further, AEW also eradicated biofilms formed by both Gram-negative bacteria (Vibrio parahaemolyticus) and Gram-positive bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes) and was observed to inactivate the detached cells which are a potential source of secondary pollution. This study demonstrates that AEW could be a reliable foodborne pathogen biofilm disrupter and an eco-friendly alternative to sanitizers traditionally used in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Han
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Xueying Song
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Zhaohuan Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Jiaojiao Fu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Xu Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Pradeep K Malakar
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Haiquan Liu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China.,Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation, Ministry of AgricultureShanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing and PreservationShanghai, China.,Engineering Research Center of Food Thermal-processing Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China
| | - Yingjie Pan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China.,Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation, Ministry of AgricultureShanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing and PreservationShanghai, China
| | - Yong Zhao
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean UniversityShanghai, China.,Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation, Ministry of AgricultureShanghai, China.,Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Aquatic-Product Processing and PreservationShanghai, China
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16
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Zhao L, Zhang Y, Yang H. Efficacy of low concentration neutralised electrolysed water and ultrasound combination for inactivating Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pichia pastoris GS115 and Aureobasidium pullulans 2012 on stainless steel coupons. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.09.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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17
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Charchoghlyan H, Kwon H, Hwang DJ, Lee JS, Lee J, Kim M. Inhibition of Cronobacter sakazakii by Lactobacillus acidophilus n.v. Er2 317/402. Korean J Food Sci Anim Resour 2016; 36:635-640. [PMID: 27857539 PMCID: PMC5112426 DOI: 10.5851/kosfa.2016.36.5.635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactobacillus acidophilus n.v. Er2 317/402 strain Narine is known as a health beneficial functional probiotic culture and supplementary source of nutrition for newborns. In this study, in vitro antimicrobial activities of Narine-lyophilized (Narine-L), Narine-heat treated (Narine-HT), and Narine crude cell-free extract (Narine-CCFE) were evaluated against pathogen Cronobacter sakazakii (C. sakazakii) in agar as well as in a reconstituted powdered infant formula (RPIF) model. Inhibition zones of 30 mg Narine-L and Narine-HT were both 150 U, whereas inhibition zone of 30 mg Narine-CCFE was 200 U. Narine-L (1 g) and Narine-HT (1 g) were added to 10 mL of artificially contaminated RPIF, respectively, containing 100 μL of C. sakazakii (1.62×108 colony forming unit (CFU)/mL). After treatment with Narine-L and Narine-HT for 3 h and 6 h at 37℃, less than ≤107 CFU/mL of C. sakazakii was detected in RPIF. Without Narine-L and Narine-HT treatment, the population of C. sakazakii increased up to 5.36×109 CFU/mL after 6 h. Examination by transmission electron microscopy confirmed C. sakazakii cells were damaged by Narine-CCFE. Thus, employing Narine culture as a natural and safe bio-preservative may protect infants from C. sakazakii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haykuhi Charchoghlyan
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea
| | - Heejun Kwon
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea
| | - Dong-Ju Hwang
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea
| | - Jong Suk Lee
- Department of Food and Nutrition and Cook, Taegu Science University, Daegu 41453, Korea
| | - Junsoo Lee
- Division of Food and Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Korea
| | - Myunghee Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea
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18
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ISHIYAMA KIRIKA, NAKAMURA KEISUKE, KANNO TARO, NIWANO YOSHIMI. Bactericidal Action of Photodynamic Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (PACT) with Photosensitizers Used as Plaque-Disclosing Agents against Experimental Biofilm. Biocontrol Sci 2016; 21:187-91. [DOI: 10.4265/bio.21.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - TARO KANNO
- Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry
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19
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Chen D, Zhao T, Doyle MP. Control of pathogens in biofilms on the surface of stainless steel by levulinic acid plus sodium dodecyl sulfate. Int J Food Microbiol 2015; 207:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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20
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Mokudai T, Kanno T, Niwano Y. Postantifungal-like effect of sublethal treatment of Candida albicans with acid-electrolyzed water. Arch Oral Biol 2015; 60:479-87. [PMID: 25555249 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2014.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Acid-electrolyzed water (AEW) has been applied to the treatment of oral candidiasis. We evaluated the postantifungal effect (PAFE)-like activity of AEW against Candida albicans under sublethal conditions by exposing C. albicans to dilute AEW. DESIGN The growth of C. albicans after a short-term exposure to dilute AEW was evaluated in broth and on agar culture. The involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the PAFE was examined by flow cytometric analysis with hydroxyphenyl fluorescein (HPF) as a fluorescence probe. RESULTS The dilute AEW exerted PAFE-like activity against C. albicans. ROS were produced in the cells treated with AEW diluted 16 times or fewer. The increase in HPF fluorescence after treatment with dilute AEW was cancelled by dimethyl sulfoxide, a hydroxyl radical (OH) scavenger. CONCLUSION It would be expected that the ROS, especially OH, produced in the C. albicans cells treated with sublethal dilutions of AEW could exert PAFE-like activity against the fungal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Mokudai
- Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Taro Kanno
- Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yoshimi Niwano
- Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan.
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21
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Mokudai T, Kanno T, Niwano Y. Involvement of reactive oxygen species in the cytotoxic effect of acid-electrolyzed water. J Toxicol Sci 2015; 40:13-9. [DOI: 10.2131/jts.40.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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22
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Posada-Izquierdo GD, Pérez-Rodríguez F, López-Gálvez F, Allende A, Gil MI, Zurera G. Modeling growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in fresh-cut lettuce treated with neutral electrolyzed water and under modified atmosphere packaging. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 177:1-8. [PMID: 24583345 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 12/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate and model the growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in fresh-cut lettuce submitted to a neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) treatment, packaged in passive modified atmosphere and subsequently stored at different temperatures (4, 8, 13, 16°C) for a maximum of 27 days. Results indicated that E. coli O157:H7 was able to grow at 8, 13, and 16°C, and declined at 4°C. However at 8°C, the lag time lasted 19 days, above the typical shelf-life time for this type of products. A secondary model predicting growth rate as a function of temperature was developed based on a square-root function. A comparison with literature data indicated that the growth predicted by the model for E. coli O157:H7 was again lower than those observed with other disinfection treatments or packaging conditions (chlorinated water, untreated product, NEW, etc.). The specific models here developed might be applied to predict growth in products treated with NEW and to improve existing quantitative risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiomar D Posada-Izquierdo
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Cordoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Darwin-C1, 14014 Córdoba, Spain.
| | - Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Cordoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Darwin-C1, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Francisco López-Gálvez
- Research Group on Quality, Safety and Bioactivity of Plant Foods, Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, Murcia, Spain
| | - Ana Allende
- Research Group on Quality, Safety and Bioactivity of Plant Foods, Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, Murcia, Spain
| | - María I Gil
- Research Group on Quality, Safety and Bioactivity of Plant Foods, Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, Murcia, Spain
| | - Gonzalo Zurera
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Cordoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Darwin-C1, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
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23
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Mokudai T, Nakamura K, Kanno T, Niwano Y. Presence of hydrogen peroxide, a source of hydroxyl radicals, in acid electrolyzed water. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46392. [PMID: 23029505 PMCID: PMC3460889 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acid electrolyzed water (AEW), which is produced through the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride (NaCl) or potassium chloride solution, is used as a disinfectant in various fields because of its potent antimicrobial activity. The hydroxyl radical, an oxygen radical species, is often suggested as a putative active ingredient for AEW antimicrobial activity. Methodology/Principal Findings The aim of the present study is to detect hydroxyl radicals in AEW. The hydroxyl radicals in AEW prepared under different conditions were determined using an electron spin resonance (ESR) technique. A signal from 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO)-OH, an adduct of DMPO and the hydroxyl radical, was detected in AEW prepared by double or triple electrolyses of 1% NaCl but not of 0.1% NaCl solution. Then the presence of hydrogen peroxide as a proposed source of hydroxyl radicals was examined using a combination of ESR and a Fenton reaction. The DMPO-OH signal was clearly detected, even in AEW prepared by single electrolysis of 0.1% NaCl solution, when ferrous sulfate was added to induce a Fenton reaction, indicating the presence of hydrogen peroxide in the AEW. Since sodium formate, a hydroxyl radical scavenger, did not affect the bactericidal activity of AEW, it is concluded that the radical is unlikely to contribute to the antimicrobial activity of AEW, although a small amount of the radical is produced from hydrogen peroxide. Dimethyl sulfoxide, the other hydroxyl radical scavenger used in the present study, canceled the bactericidal activity of AEW, accompanied by complete depletion of free available chlorine, suggesting that hypochlorous acid is probably a major contributor to the antimicrobial activity. Conclusions It is strongly suggested that although hydrogen peroxide is present in AEW as a source of hydroxyl radicals, the antimicrobial activity of AEW does not depend on these radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yoshimi Niwano
- Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, Sendai, Japan
- * E-mail:
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