Fatty acid composition including trans-fatty acids in edible oils and fats: probable intake in Indian population

Gut-inhabiting Clostridia build human GPCR ligands by conjugating neurotransmitters with diet- and human-derived fatty acids

Human physiology is regulated by endogenous signalling compounds, including fatty acid amides (FAAs), chemical mimics of which are made by bacteria. The molecules produced by human-associated microbes are difficult to identify because they may only be made in a local niche or they require a substrate sourced from the host, diet or other microbes. We identified a set of uncharacterized gene clusters in metagenomics data from the human gut microbiome. These clusters were discovered to make FAAs by fusing exogenous fatty acids with amines. Using an in vitro assay, we tested their ability to incorporate 25 fatty acids and 53 amines known to be present in the human gut, from which the production of six FAAs was deduced (oleoyl dopamine, oleoyl tyramine, lauroyl tryptamine, oleoyl aminovaleric acid, α-linolenoyl phenylethylamine and caproyl tryptamine). These molecules were screened against panels of human G-protein-coupled receptors to deduce their putative human targets. Lauroyl tryptamine is found to be an antagonist to the immunomodulatory receptor EBI2 against its native oxysterol ligand (0.98 μM half-maximal inhibitory concentration), is produced in culture by Eubacterium rectale and is present in human faecal samples. FAAs produced by Clostridia may serve as a mechanism to modulate their host by mimicking human signalling molecules.

Trans fatty acid intake among Chinese population: a longitudinal study from 1991 to 2011

Objective

This study was aimed to roughly describe individual Trans Fatty Acids (TFAs) intake and the percentage of energy intake(E%), and identify major food sources in the Chinese population, taking gender, age, and regional distribution into the consideration, as well as examining temporal changes over the course of 20 years.

Method

This multi-center study, covering nine provinces among populations aged ≥ 3 in China, was conducted to collect food consumption information from 1991 to 2011. A classical assessment method was used to estimate the level of dietary TFA intake.

Results

Over the 20-year period, the intake of TFAs in Chinese populations had increased, but remained at a relatively lower level (from 0.25 g/d(0.11% for E%) to 0.53 g/d(0.24% for E%)) compared with that of other countries and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended level. Collectively, males and participants aged 19–60 generally consumed more TFA-containing foods. People in eastern regions consumed more TFAs and had a higher E% than those in western area. Industrial sources of TFAs, especially vegetable oil, ranked as the principal food sources of TFAs in the Chinese population. Natural sources of TFAs have gradually increased in proportion among children and adolescents.

Conclusions

TFA intake and the E% are commonly under the recommended level in the general population in China. Presently, restriction of vegetable oil could be a crucial method to reduce TFA intake. It would be critical to facilitate and promote public health that food recommendations might be based on the dietary preferences for population separated by different ages and regions.

Physicochemical composition of Tamarindus indica L. (Tamarind) in the agro-ecological zones of Uganda

The relationships between the physicochemical composition of Tamarindus indica pulp and seeds, and agro-ecological zones and land use types were assessed in Uganda. The objective was to determine the relationship between the physicochemical composition, agro-ecological zones, and land use types. The samples were processed by manually depulping the T. indica pods, sun-drying the pulp and seeds, and grinding into powder. The powdered samples were analyzed for β-carotenoids, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), calorific value, crude oil, acid, and peroxide values. Data were analyzed using ANOVA in the general linear model (GLM). Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to relate the physicochemical properties to the agro-ecological zones and land use types. There were significant differences (p ≤ .05) in the physicochemical composition variables between agro-ecological zones and land use types. Land use types showed strong correlations with physicochemical properties while agro-ecological zones did not show correlations. The results show that in terms of general properties, T. indica pods provide a valuable, rich, and exceptional source of vitamin C, compared to many widely consumed indigenous and conventional fruits and vegetables. The pods from land use types characterized by natural habitats had relatively more nutrient levels than the land use types influenced by anthropogenic activities.

Nature cure treatment in the context of India's epidemiological transition

Scholars have argued that theoretical insights of critical medical anthropology should be applied to the analysis of complementary and alternative medicine in order to develop more critically engaged integrative medicine. In this essay we focus on nature cure in the context of India's contemporary epidemiological transition as an example of why engaged integrative medicine is important for public health, and how the institutionalization of nature cure treatment in India provides a critical framework for the development of programs focused on holistic treatment and prevention. After providing an overview of the epidemiological transition in contemporary India, we develop this argument through an examination of illustrative cases in a clinic that operates within the structure of India's Central Council for Research on Yoga and Naturopathy. Based on a review of recent history and contemporary practice we describe how a system of medicine that makes use exclusively of air, earth, sunlight, water and food has been institutionalized and professionalized in India. Whereas biomedical treatment for chronic non-communicable diseases is focused on the problem of curing individual diseases, nature cure establishes a regimen of personalized public healthcare for the integrated management of symptoms. We argue that nature cure is based on an ecological understanding of health, thus providing treatment that reflects a broad appreciation for the risk factors that characterize India's current crises of public health.

Beneficial effect of ghee consumption over mustard oil on lipid profile: A study in North Indian adult population

Background

Ghee (G) is attributed with numerous health benefits in Ayurveda. However, due to the high saturated fat content, it has been predicted to increase the cardiovascular disease risk. Hence, the current study was performed to evaluate the effect of G consumption as compared to mustard oil (MO) on lipid profile.

Methods

Two hundred (100 males) apparently healthy adults (≥40 years) were randomly selected out of the total individuals interviewed in a house-to-house survey. They were divided into three groups based on G and MO consumption: (A) MO >1 L/month, G<0.5 kg/month; (B) MO 1–0.5 L/month, G 1.25–0.5 kg/month; and (C) MO <0.5–0.2 L/month, G>1.25 kg/month. Serum lipid parameters were compared among the groups.

Results

Group C had the significantly lowest triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), TC/HDL and LDL/HDL and highest high-density lipoprotein (HDL). A similar finding was found when analysis was done separetely for male and female.

Conclusions

A favorable lipid profile might suggest a possible beneficial effect of predominantly G consumption over MO.

Vitamin B12 Deficiency Across Three Generations Adversely Influences Long-chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Status and Cardiometabolic Markers in Rats

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Vitamin B₁₂ and omega-3 fatty acid deficiency is prevalent in the vegetarian population and is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and cardiometabolic risk. The present study investigates the long-term effects of vitamin B₁₂ deficiency/supplementation in the presence of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiometabolic profile and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid levels (LCPUFA) in the F₃ generation offspring.

METHODS

Three generations of rats were fed the following diets: control; vitamin B₁₂ deficient; vitamin B₁₂ supplemented; vitamin B₁₂ deficient + omega-3 fatty acid supplemented; vitamin B₁₂ + omega-3 fatty acid supplemented. Animals were sacrificed at 3 months of age.

RESULTS

Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency lowered (p <0.01 for both) plasma eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), liver DHA (p <0.05), plasma/liver omega-3 fatty acids (p <0.05 for both), increased triglycerides (p <0.05) and systolic BP (p <0.01) and lowered cholesterol levels (p <0.05) as compared to control. Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in the presence of omega-3 fatty acids improved plasma/liver EPA, DHA and omega-3 fatty acid profile and maintained cholesterol, triglyceride and BP levels. Vitamin B₁₂ supplementation lowered liver DHA (p <0.05) and cholesterol (p <0.01), whereas BP was similar to control. Combined supplementation of vitamin B₁₂ and omega-3 fatty acids improved omega-3 fatty acid profile, lowered cholesterol/triglyceride levels and maintained the BP similar to that of control.

CONCLUSION

Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency across three generations adversely affects LCPUFA and cardiometabolic profile in the adult offspring. This study provides clues for a combined supplementation of vitamin B₁₂ and omega-3 fatty acids to reduce the risk for noncommunicable diseases.

Comparison of Mustard Oil and Ghee Consumption on the History of Coronary Heart Disease in Urban Population of India

INTRODUCTION

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is one of the leading causes of mortality in India, due to high consumption of mustard oil and ghee among urban population.

AIM

To find out the relationship of mustard oil and ghee consumption on CHD history.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

By a random cross-sectional, house-to-house survey in North India, 137 people aged between 40-80 years (70 males and 67 females) were selected by dietary history of Mustard Oil (MO) and Ghee consumption (G), but having no other CHD precipitating factor. Using food frequency questionnaire, the study population was divided into two groups based on the amount of MO and G consumption; Group A (n = 75): MO >1L/month, but G <0.5Kg/month and Group B (n = 62): MO =0.2 to 0.5L/month but G >1.25Kg/month. Serum lipid profile estimation and resting ECGs recording were done from all the subjects.

RESULTS

There was no statistical significant difference in CHD history between the two groups. Mustard Oil had positive correlation with CHD history. CHD was higher by 50.9% in Group A and was independent of gender. However, the odds of CHD history were higher among males by 32.2% irrespective of the groups.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that CHD history was associated with higher relative consumption of mustard oil than ghee and CHD is positively correlated with increase mustard oil intake, blood level of TG, TC, LDL, VLDL, TC/HDL and LDL/HDL ratio.

Urbanized South Asians' susceptibility to coronary heart disease: The high-heat food preparation hypothesis

OBJECTIVE

Known risk factors do not fully explain the comparatively high susceptibility to coronary heart disease (CHD) in South Asians (Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Sri Lankan populations in South Asia and overseas). The search for explanatory hypotheses and cofactors that raise susceptibility of South Asians to CHD continues. The aim of this study was to propose "the high-heat food preparation hypothesis," where neo-formed contaminants (NFCs) such as trans-fatty acids (TFAs) and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are the cofactors.

METHODS

We reviewed the actions of AGEs and TFAs, the burden of these products in tissues and blood in South Asians, the relationship between these products and CHD, the effects of preparing food and reheating oils at high temperatures on NFCs, and the foods and mode of preparation in South Asian and Chinese cuisines.

RESULTS

Animal and human studies show NFCs increase the risk for CHD. Evidence on the consumption and body burden of these products across ethnic groups is not available, and comparable data on the NFC content of the cuisine of South Asians and potential comparison populations (e.g., the Chinese with lower CHD rates) are limited. South Asians' cuisine is dominated by frying and roasting techniques that use high temperatures. South Asian foods have high TFA content primarily through the use of partially hydrogenated fats, reheated oils, and high-heat cooking. Reheating oils greatly increases the TFA content. In comparison, Chinese cuisine involves mostly braising, steaming, and boiling rather than frying.

CONCLUSION

We hypothesize that South Asians' susceptibility to CHD is partly attributable to high-heat treated foods producing high NFCs. Research to accrue direct evidence is proposed.

Effect of heating/reheating of fats/oils, as used by Asian Indians, on trans fatty acid formation

Heating/frying and reuse of edible fats/oils induces chemical changes such as formation of trans fatty acids (TFAs). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of heating/frying on formation of TFAs in fats/oils. Using gas chromatography with flame ionisation detector, TFA was estimated in six commonly used fat/oils in India (refined soybean oil, groundnut oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, clarified butter, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil), before and after subjecting them to heating/frying at 180°C and 220°C. All six fats/oils subjected to heating/frying demonstrated an increase in TFAs (p<0.001), saturated fatty acids (p<0.001) and decrease in cis-unsaturated fatty acids (p<0.001). The absolute increase in TFA content of edible oils (after subjecting to heating/reheating) ranged between 2.30±0.89g/100g and 4.5±1.43g/100g; amongst edible fats it ranged between 2.60±0.38g/100g and 5.96±1.94g/100g. There were no significant differences between the two treatment groups (heating and frying; p=0.892). Considering the undesirable health effects of TFA, appropriate guidelines for heating/re-frying of edible fats/oils by Asian Indians should be devised.

Unhealthy Fat in Street and Snack Foods in Low-Socioeconomic Settings in India: A Case Study of the Food Environments of Rural Villages and an Urban Slum

OBJECTIVE

To describe the food environment in rural villages and an urban slum setting in India with reference to commercially available unbranded packaged snacks and street foods sold by vendors, and to analyze the type and quantity of fat in these foods.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

SETTING

Two low-income villages in Haryana and an urban slum in Delhi.

PARTICIPANTS

Street vendors (n = 44) were surveyed and the nutritional content of snacks (n = 49) sold by vendors was analyzed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Vendors' awareness and perception of fats and oils, as well as the type of snacks sold, along with the content and quality of fat present in the snacks.

ANALYSIS

Descriptive statistics of vendor survey and gas chromatography to measure fatty acid content in snacks.

RESULTS

A variety of snacks were sold, including those in unlabeled transparent packages and open glass jars. Mean fat content in snacks was 28.8 g per 100-g serving in rural settings and 29.6 g per 100-g serving in urban settings. Sampled oils contained high levels of saturated fats (25% to 69% total fatty acids) and trans fats (0.1% to 30% of total fatty acids).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Interventions need to target the manufacturers of oils and fats used in freshly prepared products to improve the quality of foods available in the food environment of low-socioeconomic groups in India.

Molecular Mechanisms for the Modulation of Selected Inflammatory Markers by Dietary Rice Bran Oil in Rats Fed Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Fat

Industrially produced partially hydrogenated vegetable fat (PHVF) contains trans fatty acids (TFA) mostly comprising elaidic acid (EA, 18:1∆9t). Though, the harmful effects of TFA on health have been repeatedly publicized, the fat containing TFA have been continued to be used as a cooking medium in many regions of the world. The adverse effects of PHVF on oxidative stress and inflammatory markers and the possible ameliorative action of rice bran oil (RBO) on these markers were evaluated. Weaning rats were fed a AIN-93 purified diet supplemented with the following lipids: groundnut oil (GNO, 10 wt%), PHVF (10 wt%), RBO (10 wt%), PHVF blended with RBO at 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 wt% levels. The final concentration of the lipids in the diet was maintained at 10 wt%. Rats were fed these diets for 60 days. They were sacrificed and analyzed for oxidative stress and inflammatory markers. The rats fed PHVF showed lower levels of lipid peroxidation and hepatic antioxidant enzymes. The rats fed PHVF-containing diets showed enhanced levels of interleukin-1β, C-reactive proteins and also showed enhanced levels of paw inflammation when injected with carrageenan as compared to rats given GNO, RBO or PHVF blended with incremental amounts of RBO. The macrophages from rats fed diet containing PHVF showed up-regulation in the expressions of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), nuclear factor-κB p65, toll like receptor (TLR)-2, TLR-4 and down-regulation in the expressions of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPAR)γ, adiponectin receptor (AdipoR)-1 and AdipoR-2 when compared to rats fed diet containing GNO, RBO and PHVF blended with RBO. It was concluded that dietary PHVF enhance pro-inflammatory markers which can be reduced by judiciously blending PHVF with RBO.

Quantitative estimates of dietary intake with special emphasis on snacking pattern and nutritional status of free living adults in urban slums of Delhi: impact of nutrition transition

BACKGROUND

The nutritional landscape of India is experiencing the fallout of urbanization and globalization. The changes are manifest in dietary patterns as well as health outcomes. The study aimed at assessing household dietary intake pattern with special emphasis on snacking pattern, anthropometric and lipid profiles in low socio-economic status households in an urban slum of Delhi.

METHODS

Community based cross-sectional study in 260 households of a purposively selected urban slum in North-East district of Delhi, India. Family dietary surveys including consumption pattern of commercial food products rich in Partially Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils (PHVOs), 24 h dietary recall and assessment of dietary diversity using Household Diet Diversity Scores (HDDS) were done. Assessment of nutritional status using anthropometric and lipid profile on a subsample (n =130) were also conducted.

RESULTS

Median energy and fat intake were adequate. Micronutrient intake was found to be inadequate for vitamin A, riboflavin, calcium and folate. PHVO usage was low (<20 % households). Milk (39 %), green leafy vegetables (25 %) and fruits (25 %) intake were below recommendations. Mean HDDS was 7.87. Prevalence of overweight/obesity was high (66.7 %). Lipid profile showed mean HDL-C levels lower than recommendations for females.

CONCLUSION

Community based awareness programs for prevention of non-communicable diseases should incorporate healthy diet and lifestyle practices with emphasis on quantity and quality of nutrient intake. This must be considered as an integral part of chronic disease prevention strategy for underprivileged communities in urban India.

Global, regional, and national consumption levels of dietary fats and oils in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis including 266 country-specific nutrition surveys

OBJECTIVES

To quantify global consumption of key dietary fats and oils by country, age, and sex in 1990 and 2010.

DESIGN

Data were identified, obtained, and assessed among adults in 16 age- and sex-specific groups from dietary surveys worldwide on saturated, omega 6, seafood omega 3, plant omega 3, and trans fats, and dietary cholesterol. We included 266 surveys in adults (83% nationally representative) comprising 1,630,069 unique individuals, representing 113 of 187 countries and 82% of the global population. A multilevel hierarchical Bayesian model accounted for differences in national and regional levels of missing data, measurement incomparability, study representativeness, and sampling and modelling uncertainty.

SETTING AND POPULATION

Global adult population, by age, sex, country, and time.

RESULTS

In 2010, global saturated fat consumption was 9.4%E (95%UI=9.2 to 9.5); country-specific intakes varied dramatically from 2.3 to 27.5%E; in 75 of 187 countries representing 61.8% of the world's adult population, the mean intake was <10%E. Country-specific omega 6 consumption ranged from 1.2 to 12.5%E (global mean=5.9%E); corresponding range was 0.2 to 6.5%E (1.4%E) for trans fat; 97 to 440 mg/day (228 mg/day) for dietary cholesterol; 5 to 3,886 mg/day (163 mg/day) for seafood omega 3; and <100 to 5,542 mg/day (1,371 mg/day) for plant omega 3. Countries representing 52.4% of the global population had national mean intakes for omega 6 fat ≥ 5%E; corresponding proportions meeting optimal intakes were 0.6% for trans fat (≤ 0.5%E); 87.6% for dietary cholesterol (<300 mg/day); 18.9% for seafood omega 3 fat (≥ 250 mg/day); and 43.9% for plant omega 3 fat (≥ 1,100 mg/day). Trans fat intakes were generally higher at younger ages; and dietary cholesterol and seafood omega 3 fats generally higher at older ages. Intakes were similar by sex. Between 1990 and 2010, global saturated fat, dietary cholesterol, and trans fat intakes remained stable, while omega 6, seafood omega 3, and plant omega 3 fat intakes each increased.

CONCLUSIONS

These novel global data on dietary fats and oils identify dramatic diversity across nations and inform policies and priorities for improving global health.