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Spielmann H, Lovell WW, Hölzle E, Johnson BE, Maurer T, Miranda MA, Pape WJ, Sapora O, Sladowski D. In Vitro Phototoxicity Testing. Altern Lab Anim 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/026119299402200503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Horst Spielmann
- ZEBET, Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV), Diedersdorfer Weg 1, D-12277 Berlin, Germany
| | - Will W. Lovell
- Unilever Research, Colworth House, Sharnbrook, Bedford MK44 1LQ, UK
| | - Erhard Hölzle
- Department of Dermatology, Hautklinik, Universitäts-Krankenhaus Eppendorf, Martiuistrasse 52, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Brian E. Johnson
- Photobiology Unit, Department of Dermatology, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee DD1 9SY, UK
| | - Thomas Maurer
- Preclinical Safety K135.284, Ciba-Geigy Ltd, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Wolfgang J.W. Pape
- Department of Biocompatibility K.St. 4232, Beiersdorf AG, D-20253 Hamburg 20, Germany
| | - Orazio Sapora
- Comparative Toxicology Laboratory, Instituto Superiorè di Sanita, I-00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Dariusz Sladowski
- “Department of Transplantology, Institute for Biostructure, University Medical School, Warsaw 02–004, Poland
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García C, Piñero L, Oyola R, Arce R. Photodegradation of 2-chloro substituted phenothiazines in alcohols. Photochem Photobiol 2008; 85:160-70. [PMID: 18673321 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2008.00412.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms that trigger the phototoxic response to 2-chlorophenothiazine derivatives are still unknown. To better understand the relationship between the molecular structure of halogenated phenothiazines and their phototoxic activity, their photophysics and photochemistry were studied in several alcohols. The photodestruction quantum yields were determined under anaerobic conditions using monochromatic light (313 nm). Absorption- and emission-spectroscopy, (1)H- and (13)C-NMR and GC-MS were used to characterize the photoproducts and reference compounds. An electron transfer mechanism had been previously proposed by Bunce et al. (J. Med. Chem. 22, 202-204) to explain the large difference between the photodestruction quantum yield of 2-chlorpromazine (phi = 0.46) and 2-chlorphenothiazine (phi = 0.20). According to these authors, the alkylamino chain transfers an electron to the phenothiazine moiety. Our results demonstrate that this mechanism is incorrect, because the photodestruction quantum yields of all chlorinated derivatives of this study are the same under the same conditions of solvent and irradiation wavelength. The quantum yield has no dependence on the 10-substituent, but it depends on the solvent. The percentage of each photoproduct, on the other hand, strongly depends on that substituent, but not very much on the solvent. Finally, it is demonstrated that the phototoxic effect of chlorinated phenothiazines is not related to the photodechlorination, although both processes share the same transient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmelo García
- Department of Chemistry, Humacao Campus, University of Puerto Rico, Humacao, Puerto Rico.
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García C, Oyola R, Piñero LE, Arce R, Silva J, Sánchez V. Substitution and Solvent Effects on the Photophysical Properties of Several Series of 10-Alkylated Phenothiazine Derivatives. J Phys Chem A 2005; 109:3360-71. [PMID: 16833671 DOI: 10.1021/jp044530j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The photophysical properties of several 2-substituted, 10-alkylated phenothiazines were measured in several solvents to investigate the relevance of the molecular structure in their photophysics and consequent photochemistry. Because the interaction modes of each drug and its corresponding species strongly depend on the variety of microenvironments in the cells, the properties of each one of these species must also be determined separately to understand fully the mechanism of action of the drug and the mechanism of its side effects. Information on the chemical interactions of the different species at the cellular level can be inferred from the corresponding electronic properties. In this work, we present absorption, steady-state, and time-resolved emission, laser flash photolysis, and quantum theoretical results for the ground state, the first excited singlet and triplet states, and the cation radical of promazine hydrochloride (PZ), 2-chlorpromazine hydrochloride (CPZ), 2-trifluoromethylpromazine hydrochloride (TFMPZ), 2-trifluoromethylperazine dihydrochloride (TFMP), 2-thiomethylpromazine (TMPZ), and thioridazine hydrochloride (TR). The corresponding nonalkylated phenothiazines are included as references. The photophysical properties of this drug family depend more on the solvent and the 2-substituents than on the dialkylaminopropyl chain. The largest effect was found for the triplet state of the 2-halogenated derivatives in phosphate buffer (PBS). Both the quantum yield and the lifetime of this intermediate drop to less than 5% of the corresponding value in organic solvents. The triplet state of halogenated promazines is efficiently quenched by a proton-transfer mechanism, and the rate of this quenching correlates very well with the phototoxicity of the promazine drugs. Therefore, we postulate that this species is directly related to the phototoxic side effect of neuroleptic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmelo García
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico-Humacao, Humacao, Puerto Rico.
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Abstract
The interaction of sunlight with drug medication leads to photosensitivity responses in susceptible patients, and has the potential to increase the incidence of skin cancer. Adverse photosensitivity responses to drugs occur predominantly as a phototoxic reaction which is more immediate than photoallergy, and can be reversed by withdrawal or substitution of the drug. The bias and inaccuracy of the reporting procedure for these adverse reactions is a consequence of the difficulty in distinguishing between sunburn and a mild drug photosensitivity reaction, together with the patient being able to control the incidence by taking protective action. The drug classes that currently are eliciting a high level of adverse photosensitivity are the diuretic, antibacterial and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Photosensitising chemicals usually have a low molecular weight (200 to 500 Daltons) and are planar, tricyclic, or polycyclic configurations, often with heteroatoms in their structures enabling resonance stabilisation. All absorb ultraviolet (UV) and/or visible radiation, a characteristic that is essential for the chemical to be regarded as a photosensitiser. The photochemical and photobiological mechanisms underlying the adverse reactions caused by the more photoactive drugs are mainly free radical in nature, but reactive oxygen species are also involved. Drugs that contain chlorine substituents in their chemical structure, such as hydrochlorthiazide, furosemide and chlorpromazine, exhibit photochemical activity that is traced to the UV-induced dissociation of the chlorine substituent leading to free radical reactions with lipids, proteins and DNA. The photochemical mechanisms for the NSAIDs that contain the 2-aryl propionic acid group involve decarboxylation as the primary step, with subsequent free radical activity. In aerated systems, the reactive excited singlet form of oxygen is produced with high efficiency. This form of oxygen is highly reactive towards lipids and proteins. NSAIDs without the 2-arylpropionic acid group are also photoactive, but with differing mechanisms leading to a less severe biological outcome. In the antibacterial drug class, the tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones and sulfonamides are the most photoactive. Photocontact dermatitis due to topically applied agents interacting with sunlight has been reported for some sunscreen and cosmetic ingredients, as well as local anaesthetic and anti-acne agents. Prevention of photosensitivity involves adequate protection from the sun with clothing and sunscreens. In concert with the preponderance of free radical mechanisms involving the photosensitising drugs, some recent studies suggest that diet supplementation with antioxidants may be beneficial in increasing the minimum erythemal UV radiation dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas E Moore
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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Beijersbergen van henegouwen GM. Medicinal Photochemistry: Phototoxic and Phototherapeutic Aspects of Drugs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2490(97)80014-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
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van Iperen HP, Beijersbergen van Henegouwen GM. Photopheresis; the risk of photoallergy. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1996; 34:225-8. [PMID: 8810540 DOI: 10.1016/1011-1344(95)07277-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Photopheresis is a therapy for several T-cell-mediated disorders, aiming at a specific immune response against the pathogenic clone of T cells involved. With photopheresis, a mixture of patients' buffy coat and plasma, which contains 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP), is diluted with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and exposed to ultraviolet A radiation (UVA). After the irradiation the treated fraction is reinfused. As photomodification of biomacromolecules is considered to be crucial in photopheresis, the presence of plasma during irradiation can pose a problem. The fact is that photomodification of plasma proteins is supposed to be the causal step in the occurrence of photoallergy. Whether the presence of plasma during photopheresis is a risk for photoallergy was investigated with 8-MOP and chlorpromazine (CPZ; well-established photoallergen). It proved that both sensitizers can induce photoallergy, although the concentration of 8-MOP needed to induce photoallergy is 4.5 times higher than that of CPZ. It is concluded that the presence of plasma during irradiation should be avoided in order to prevent the risk of induction of photoallergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- H P van Iperen
- Department of Medicinal Photochemistry, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Netherlands
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Tiefenbacher EM, Haen E, Przybilla B, Kurz H. Photodegradation of some quinolones used as antimicrobial therapeutics. J Pharm Sci 1994; 83:463-7. [PMID: 8046597 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600830403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The photostability of the fluoroquinolones ciprofloxacin (CPX), ofloxacin (OFX), and fleroxacin (FLX) toward ultraviolet irradiation (UVA) and room light was investigated in dilute aqueous solutions. A series of photoproducts was observed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for all three drugs. As little as 1 h of exposure to room light was enough for the formation of detectable amounts of CPX photoproducts. The major CPX photoproduct was characterized as a dimer by liquid secondary ion mass spectrometry, but its structure was not determined. Since irradiation of CPX results (as cited in ref/11) in a loss of antibacterial activity and since all substances, parent drugs as well as their photoproducts, are potential candidates for undesired drug effects, quinolone drugs should be strictly protected from all light during storage and administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Tiefenbacher
- Walther-Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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Broeke LTVD, Ouijja EH, Bojarski J, Henegouwen GMJBVAN. In vitro PHOTODEGRADATION OF CHLORPROMAZINE. Photochem Photobiol 1994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1994.tb05013.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Although the sensitivity to light of thioridazine and its metabolites has been described, the problem does not seem to be widely acknowledged. Indeed, a survey of the literature shows that assays of these compounds under light-protected conditions have been performed only in a few of the numerous analytical studies on this drug. In the present study, thioridazine, its metabolites, and 18 other neuroleptics were tested for their sensitivity to light under conditions used for their analysis. The results show that light significantly affects the analysis of thioridazine and its metabolites. It readily causes the racemization of the isomeric pairs of thioridazine 5-sulphoxide and greatly decreases the concentration of thioridazine. This sensitivity to light varied with the medium used (most sensitive in acidic media) and also with the molecule (in order of decreasing sensitivity: thioridazine > mesoridazine > sulforidazine). Degradation in neutral or basic media was slow, with the exception of mesoridazine in a neutral medium. Twelve other phenothiazines tested, as well as chlorprotixene, a thioxanthene drug, were found to be sensitive to light in acidic media, whereas flupenthixol and zuclopenthixol (two thioxanthenes), clozapine, fluperlapine, and haloperidol (a butyrophenone) did not seem to be affected. In addition to being sensitive to light, some compounds may be readily oxidized by peroxide-containing solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- C B Eap
- Département Universitaire de Psychiatrie Adulte (DUPA), Prilly-Lausanne, Switzerland
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van den Broeke LT, Beyersbergen van Henegouwen GM. UV-radiation protecting efficacy of thiols, studied with UVA-induced binding of 8-MOP and CPZ to rat epidermal biomacromolecules in vivo. Int J Radiat Biol 1993; 63:493-500. [PMID: 8096862 DOI: 10.1080/09553009314550651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The following topically-applied thiols were investigated with regard to their possible UV-radiation protective properties: captopril, cysteamine, ergothioneine, mesna, mercaptopropionylglycine, N-acetyl-cysteine and penicillamine. As a measure for protection the inhibition of in vivo irreversible photobinding of the labelled phototoxic drugs chlorpromazine (CPZ) and 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) to rat epidermal biomacromolecules was used. Ergothioneine, mesna and penicillamine did not show any effect; probably, as a result of their charge they are not able to enter the stratum corneum. Captopril, cysteamine, mercaptopropionylglycine and N-acetylcysteine showed a considerable inhibition of CPZ and 8-MOP photobinding. Captopril and N-acetylcysteine were clearly the most potent whereas cysteamine was the least effective. Captopril, mercaptopropionylglycine and N-acetylcysteine appeared to have a wider action range and to be a more effective protector than dl-alpha-tocopherol and di-butyl-hydroxytoluene. Cysteamine and mercaptopropionylglycine were only capable of protecting the stratum corneum. Captopril and N-acetylcysteine on the other hand showed an additional dose-dependent inhibition of photobinding to the viable epidermis. Gradually with increasing time after application, the protecting efficacy with regard to the viable layer of the epidermis decreased; the duration of protection depending on the dose.
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van den Broeke LT, Beyersbergen van Henegouwen GM. Thiols as potential UV radiation protectors: an in vitro study. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1993; 17:279-86. [PMID: 8492245 DOI: 10.1016/1011-1344(93)80026-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The following thiols were investigated with regard to their possible UV-radiation protective properties: captopril, cysteamine, ergothioneine, mesna, mercaptopropionylglycine, N-acetylcysteine, and penicillamine. As a measure for protection, the inhibition of in vitro irreversible photobinding of the labeled phototoxic drugs chlorpromazine (CPZ) and 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) to protein and DNA was used. Besides photobinding to biomacromolecules, the photodegradation of CPZ and the formation of promazine (PZH) and hydroxypromazine (PZOH) were measured as well. Because of the H-atom and electron donating capacity of the thiols, the ratio [PZOH]/[PZH] was expected to be decreased and the photodegradation of CPZ was expected to be higher in the presence of thiols. Maximum inhibition of CPZ photobinding ranged for the different thiols between 21-100% (DNA) and 17-87% (human serum albumin). All thiols enhanced the photodegradation of CPZ (19-84%) and inhibited the ratio [PZOH]/[PZH] (90-97%). 8-MOP photobinding to human serum albumin was also clearly inhibited (75-96%), but remarkably less to DNA (2-41%). This study indicates that thiols are able to cope with a variety of reactive species. Scavenging of radicals, quenching of singlet molecular oxygen species and reaction with excited states seem to be essential mechanisms involved with this process.
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Lovell W. A scheme for in vitro screening of substances for photoallergenic potential. Toxicol In Vitro 1993; 7:95-102. [DOI: 10.1016/0887-2333(93)90117-n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/1992] [Revised: 08/04/1992] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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van Henegouwen GMJB, De Vries H, van Den Broeke LT, Junginger HE. RRR-Tocopherols and their Acetates as a Possible Scavenger of Free Radicals Produced in the Skin upon UVA-Exposure – An in vivo Screening Method. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/lipi.19920940107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Beijersbergen van Henegouwen GM. (Systemic) phototoxicity of drugs and other xenobiotics. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1991; 10:183-210. [PMID: 1779276 DOI: 10.1016/1011-1344(91)85002-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Xenobiotics extensively used in drugs, cosmetics, food and agricultural chemicals can produce adverse biological effects. These toxic effects are separated into classes, e.g. hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Skin allergy, part of immunotoxicity, is also a subdivision of toxicology. When light is an essential condition for toxicity, the xenobiotic is called phototoxic. Thus it fits into the logic of toxicology that photoallergic compounds are a subdivision of phototoxic compounds. Phototoxicons as a group do not differ from the group of phototherapeutics with regard to their eventual biological effects. The primary photoreactions, secondary molecular processes, biomolecules involved and cellular and tissue damage are similar. The difference between the two groups is in the appreciation of the photobiological effects: adverse vs. desired. The aim of research is to determine the part of the molecular structure which makes a given compound phototoxic. With that knowledge the structure of the phototoxicon can be changed. This can result in a derivative which still has the desired properties of the parent compound, but is no longer phototoxic. This aim can be reached by combining data from both in vitro and in vivo research. The variety and number of phototoxic compounds is large. This, together with the limited research effort devoted to this subject so far, means that for most phototoxic xenobiotics a relationship between structure and in vivo photoreactivity is not available. In this review, emphasis is placed on xenobiotics whose in vitro and in vivo photochemistry have been studied. Furthermore, possible phototoxic effects which do not concern the skin but involve inner organs (systemic effects) are considered. References in this review mostly concern investigations over the last 10 years. For older literature or for additional information, references to other reviews are given. Important groups of phototoxic xenobiotics not dealt with in this article were already sufficiently covered in the reviews referred to.
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Schoonderwoerd SA, Beijersbergen van Henegouwen GM, Persons KC. Effect of alpha-tocopherol and di-butyl-hydroxytoluene (BHT) on UV-A-induced photobinding of 8-methoxypsoralen to Wistar rat epidermal biomacromolecules in vivo. Arch Toxicol 1991; 65:490-4. [PMID: 1929870 DOI: 10.1007/bf01977362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The possible formation of singlet oxygen via photoexcited psoralens has been associated with the occurrence of, amongst others, erythema. Therefore it has been suggested to combine PUVA with the topical or systemic administration of antioxidants. However, the effect of these antioxidants on the photobinding of psoralens to DNA, which is held responsible for the anti-proliferative effect, should be taken into account. In the present study the effect of two phenolic antioxidants, alpha-tocopherol (AT) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), on the in vivo photobinding of 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) to not only epidermal DNA, but also proteins and lipids was determined. After topical application of an ethanolic antioxidant solution onto the shaven skin of Wistar rats, labeled 8-MOP was applied using the same solvent. After this the rats were exposed to UV-A. By separating epidermal lipids, DNA/RNA and proteins by a selective extraction method, irreversible binding of 8-MOP to each of these biomacromolecules was determined. Both AT and BHT caused a decrease in the photobinding of 8-MOP to epidermal DNA and proteins. To investigate the underlying mechanism of this protection, the effect of AT was compared with that of AT-acetate. It also proved helpful to study the effects of the antioxidants on the photobinding of another photosensitizer, namely chlorpromazine. From these experiments it was concluded that AT and BHT affect 8-MOP photobinding by quenching reactive 8-MOP intermediates, involving the phenolic hydroxyl group of the antioxidants. BHT offered protection against lipid binding of 8-MOP but AT, especially at high concentrations, enhanced the UV-A-induced binding of 8-MOP to lipids.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Schoonderwoerd SA, Beijersbergen van Henegouwen GM, van Belkum S. In vivo photodegradation of chlorpromazine. Photochem Photobiol 1989; 50:659-64. [PMID: 2623051 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1989.tb04323.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The in vivo photodegradation of chlorpromazine (CPZ) in the skin was investigated after systemic administration of 3H-CPZ to shaven Wistar rats and exposure to UV-A. Promazine (PZ) and 2-hydroxy-promazine (2-OH-PZ) appeared to be formed in irradiated rats, but not in the skin of rats kept in the dark. This indicates that upon irradiation with UV-A the PZ-radical is formed which can be held responsible for the photobinding to eye and skin constituents as observed earlier [Schoonderwoerd and Beijersbergen von Henegouwen (1987) Photochem. Photobiol. 46, 501-505]. Chlorpromazine-sulfoxide (CPZSO) is a major metabolite of CPZ. Less CPZSO was found in the skin of irradiated rats compared to those kept in the dark. As this appeared not to be caused by photobinding or photodegradation of CPZSO it can be concluded that CPZSO is not a photoproduct of CPZ under these experimental conditions. This study shows that the in vivo photodegradation of CPZ proceeds via the promazinyl radical rather than via the radical cation.
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