Fluorescent characteristics and pharmacokinetic profiles of the fluorescent probe BCECF in various tissues: the role of blood content

The hepatic microcirculation: mechanistic contributions and therapeutic targets in liver injury and repair

The complex functions of the liver in biosynthesis, metabolism, clearance, and host defense are tightly dependent on an adequate microcirculation. To guarantee hepatic homeostasis, this requires not only a sufficient nutritive perfusion and oxygen supply, but also a balanced vasomotor control and an appropriate cell-cell communication. Deteriorations of the hepatic homeostasis, as observed in ischemia/reperfusion, cold preservation and transplantation, septic organ failure, and hepatic resection-induced hyperperfusion, are associated with a high morbidity and mortality. During the last two decades, experimental studies have demonstrated that microcirculatory disorders are determinants for organ failure in these disease states. Disorders include 1) a dysregulation of the vasomotor control with a deterioration of the endothelin-nitric oxide balance, an arterial and sinusoidal constriction, and a shutdown of the microcirculation as well as 2) an overwhelming inflammatory response with microvascular leukocyte accumulation, platelet adherence, and Kupffer cell activation. Within the sequelae of events, proinflammatory mediators, such as reactive oxygen species and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, are the key players, causing the microvascular dysfunction and perfusion failure. This review covers the morphological and functional characterization of the hepatic microcirculation, the mechanistic contributions in surgical disease states, and the therapeutic targets to attenuate tissue injury and organ dysfunction. It also indicates future directions to translate the knowledge achieved from experimental studies into clinical practice. By this, the use of the recently introduced techniques to monitor the hepatic microcirculation in humans, such as near-infrared spectroscopy or orthogonal polarized spectral imaging, may allow an early initiation of treatment, which should benefit the final outcome of these critically ill patients.

Fluorescence imaging method for in vivo pH monitoring during liposomes uptake in rat liver using a pH-sensitive fluorescent dye

Liposomes are known to be taken up by the liver cells after intravenous injection. Among the few techniques available to follow this process in vivo are perturbed angular correlation spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and scintigraphy. The study of the intracellular pathways and liposomal localization in the different liver cells requires sacrifice of the animals, cells separation, and electronic microscopy. In the acidic intracellular compartments, the in situ rate of release of liposomes remains poorly understood. We present a new method to follow the in situ and in vivo uptake of liposomes using a fluorescent pH-sensitive probe 5,6-carboxyfluorescein (5,6-CF). 5,6-CF is encapsulated in liposomes at high concentration (100 mM) to quench its fluorescence. After laparotomy, liposomes are injected into the penile vein of Wistar rats. Fluorescence images of the liver and the skin are recorded during 90 min and the fluorescence intensity ratio is calculated. Ratio kinetics show different profiles depending on the liposomal formulation. The calculated intracellular liver pH values are, respectively, 4.5 to 5.0 and 6.0 to 6.5 for DSPC/chol and DMPC liposomes. After sacrifice and flush with a cold saline solution, the pH of the intracellular site of the liver (ex vivo) is found to be 4.5 to 5.0. This value can be explained by an uptake of liposomes by the liver cells and subsequent localization into the acidic compartment. An intracellular event such as dye release of a drug carrier (liposomes loaded with a fluorescent dye) can be monitored by pH fluorescence imaging and spectroscopy in vivo and in situ.

A novel fluorescent silica tracer for biological silicification studies

BACKGROUND

Biological silica production has drawn intense attention and several molecules involved in biosilicification have been identified. Cellular mechanisms, however, remain unknown mainly due to the lack of probes required for obtaining information on live specimens.

RESULTS

The fluorescence spectra of the compound 2-(4-pyridyl)-5-((4-(2-dimethylaminoethylaminocarbamoyl)methoxy)phenyl)oxazole (PDMPO) are affected by the presence of >3.2 mM silicic acid. Increase in intensity and shift in the fluorescence coincide with the polymerization of Si. The unique PDMPO-silica fluorescence is explored here to visualize Si deposition in living diatoms. The fluorophore is selectively incorporated and co-deposited with Si into the newly synthesized frustules (the outer silica shells) showing an intense green fluorescence.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that a fluorescence shift is due to an interaction between PDMPO and polymeric silicic acid. PDMPO is an excellent probe for imaging newly deposited silica in living cells and has also a potential for a wide range of applications in various Si-related disciplines, including biology of living organisms as diatoms, sponges, and higher plants, clinical research (e.g. lung fibrosis and cancer, bone development, artificial bone implantation), and chemistry and physics of materials research.

A novel acidotropic pH indicator and its potential application in labeling acidic organelles of live cells

BACKGROUND

Ratio imaging has received intensive attention in the past few decades. The growing potential of ratio imaging is significantly limited, however, by the lack of appropriate fluorescent probes, for acidic organelles in particular. The classic fluorescent dyes (such as fluoresceins, rhodamines and coumarins) are not suitable for studying acidic organelles (such as lysosomes) because their fluorescence is significantly decreased under neutral or acidic conditions. This has motivated us to develop probes that can be used in ratio imaging that are strongly fluorescent even in acidic media.

RESULTS

The compound 2-(4-pyridyl)-5-((4-(2-dimethylaminoethyl-aminocarbamoyl) methoxy)phenyl)oxazole (PDMPO) was prepared and characterized as a new acidotropic dual-excitation and dual-emission pH indicator. It emits intense yellow fluorescence at lower pH and gives intense blue fluorescence at higher pH. This unique pH-dependent fluorescence property was readily explored to selectively stain lysosomes and to determine the pH of the organelle in an emission-ratio-imaging mode. PDMPO is selectively localized to lysosomes and exhibits a pH-dependent dual excitation and emission.

CONCLUSIONS

PDMPO selectively labels acidic organelles (such as lysosomes) of live cells and the two distinct emission peaks can be used to monitor the pH fluctuations of live cells in ratio measurements. Additionally, the very large Stokes shift and excellent photostability of PDMPO make the compound an ideal fluorescent acidotropic probe. The unique fluorescence properties of PDMPO might give researchers a new tool with which to study acidic organelles of live cells.