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Lee SY, Cho YK, Bae CS, Kim G, Lee MJ, Cho SS, Jeon IC, Park DH. Oxidative and carbonyl stress induced AMD and Codonopsis lanceolata ameliorates AMD via controlling oxidative and carbonyl stress. Sci Rep 2024; 14:16322. [PMID: 39009704 PMCID: PMC11251066 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-67044-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the leading causes of blindness. AMD is currently incurable; the best solution is to prevent its occurrence. To develop drugs for AMD, it is crucial to have a model system that mimics the symptoms and mechanisms in patients. It is most important to develop safer and more effective anti-AMD drug. In this study, the dose of A2E and the intensity of blue light were evaluated to establish an appropriate atrophic in vitro model of AMD and anti-AMD effect and therapeutic mechanism of Codonopsis lanceolata. The experimental groups included a control group an AMD group treated with A2E and blue light, a lutein group treated with 25 μM lutein after AMD induction, and three groups treated with different doses of C. lanceolata (10, 20, and 50 μg/mL) after AMD induction. Intrinsic apoptotic pathway (Bcl-2 family), anti-oxidative system (Keap1/Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant response element), and anti-carbonyl effect (4-hydroxynonenal [4-HNE]) were evaluated using immunofluorescence, MTT, TUNEL, FACS, and western blotting analyses. A2E accumulation in the cytoplasm of ARPE-19 cells depending on the dose of A2E. Cell viability of ARPE-19 cells according to the dose of A2E and/or blue light intensity. The population of apoptotic or necrotic cells increased based on the A2E dose and blue light intensity. Codonopsis lanceolata dose-dependently prevented cell death which was induced by A2E and blue light. The antiapoptotic effect of that was caused by activating Keap1/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, suppressing 4-HNE, and modulating Bcl-2 family proteins like increase of antiapoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL and decrease of proapoptotic protein such as Bim. Based on these findings, 30 μM A2E and 20 mW/cm2 blue light on adult retinal pigment epithelium-19 cells was an appropriate condition for AMD model and C. lanceolata shows promise as an anti-AMD agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soon-Young Lee
- College of Korean Medicine, Dongshin University, Naju, 58245, Jeonnam, Korea
| | - Yeon-Kyoung Cho
- College of Health and Welfare, Dongshin University, Naju, 58245, Jeonnam, Korea
| | - Chun-Sik Bae
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, Korea
| | - Gyeyeop Kim
- College of Health and Welfare, Dongshin University, Naju, 58245, Jeonnam, Korea
| | - Min-Jae Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Gangwon, Korea
| | - Seung-Sik Cho
- Department of Biomedicine, Health & Life Convergence Sciences, BK21 Four, Biomedical and Healthcare Research Institute, Mokpo National University, Muan, 58554, Jeonnam, Korea.
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Mokpo National University, Muan, 58579, Jeonnam, Korea.
| | - In-Chul Jeon
- College of Health and Welfare, Dongshin University, Naju, 58245, Jeonnam, Korea.
| | - Dae-Hun Park
- College of Korean Medicine, Dongshin University, Naju, 58245, Jeonnam, Korea.
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Pazur E, Kalatanova A, Tasker NR, Vainionpää K, Leinonen H, Wipf P. Synthesis and Biological Analysis of Iso-dimethyltryptamines in a Model of Light-Induced Retinal Degeneration. ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:1049-1056. [PMID: 39015263 PMCID: PMC11247652 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.4c00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 06/09/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Iso-dimethyltryptamine (isoDMT) analogues with heterocyclic substitutions at the indole C(3) were prepared in a hydrogen autotransfer alkylation and tested in combination with natural and unnatural clavine alkaloids in a model of light-induced retinal degeneration for protection against retinal degeneration. On the basis of measurements with optical coherence tomography and electroretinography, three compounds showed better efficacy than the positive control bromocriptine at equivalent systemically administered doses. These studies provide further insights into the role of serotonin receptors and their potential therapeutic applications in ocular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan
J. Pazur
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Anna Kalatanova
- Yliopistonrinne
3, Canthia, School of Pharmacy, University
of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Nikhil R. Tasker
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Katri Vainionpää
- Yliopistonrinne
3, Canthia, School of Pharmacy, University
of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Henri Leinonen
- Yliopistonrinne
3, Canthia, School of Pharmacy, University
of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Peter Wipf
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
- Yliopistonrinne
3, Canthia, School of Pharmacy, University
of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
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3
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Komar K. Two-photon vision - Seeing colors in infrared. Vision Res 2024; 220:108404. [PMID: 38608547 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2024.108404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
This review discusses the current state of knowledge regarding the phenomenon called two-photon vision. It involves the visual perception of pulsed infrared beams in the range of 850-1200 nm as having colors corresponding to one-half of the IR wavelengths. It is caused by two-photon absorption (TPA), which occurs when the visual photopigment interacts simultaneously with two infrared photons. The physical mechanism of TPA is described, and implications about the efficiency of the process are considered. The spectral range of two-photon vision is defined, along with a detailed discussion of the known differences in color perception between normal and two-photon vision. The quadratic dependence of the luminance of two-photon stimuli on the power of the stimulating beam is also explained. Examples of recording two-photon vision in the retinas of mice and monkeys are provided from the literature. Finally, applications of two-photon vision are discussed, particularly two-photon microperimetry, which has been under development for several years; and the potential advantages of two-photon retinal displays are explained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Komar
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Skierniewicka 10a, 01-230 Warsaw, Poland; Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, M. Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland; Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Grudziądzka 5, 87-100 Toruń, Poland.
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4
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DeBoer CMT, Rasmussen DK, Franco JA, Mahajan VB. Emerging Oral Pharmaceuticals for Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Mechanism of Action, Current Clinical Status, and Future Directions. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina 2024:1-7. [PMID: 38917394 DOI: 10.3928/23258160-20240430-02] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD) has been historically managed with lifestyle modifications, monitoring for conversion to wet AMD, and vitamins. Recently there has been a flurry of research focused on discovering new targets to prevent worsening of dry AMD. In 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration approved the first two intravitreal complement inhibitors to slow the rate of geographic atrophy progression. However, serial intravitreal injections for a chronic progressive disease are burdensome for patients and have procedural risks. Therefore, there is significant research to discover novel oral medications to manage dry AMD. Several oral medications are currently in phase 2 and 3 clinical trials for dry AMD, whereas others have had recent readouts on their clinical trials and efficacy. The purpose of this review is to describe the therapeutic pathways currently being investigated and to provide an update on the clinical status of novel oral medications for the management of dry AMD. [Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina 2024;55:XX-XX.].
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Kwon YS, Munsoor J, Kaufmann M, Zheng M, Smirnov AI, Han Z. Polydopamine Nanoparticles as Mimicking RPE Melanin for the Protection of Retinal Cells Against Blue Light-Induced Phototoxicity. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2400230. [PMID: 38816934 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202400230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Exposure of the eyes to blue light can induce the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells, potentially leading to pathological damage of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). While the melanin in RPE cells absorbs blue light and prevents ROS accumulation, the loss and dysfunction of RPE melanin due to age-related changes may contribute to photooxidation toxicity. Herein, a novel approach utilizing a polydopamine-replenishing strategy via a single-dose intravitreal (IVT) injection is presented to protect retinal cells against blue light-induced phototoxicity. To investigate the effects of overexposure to blue light on retinal cells, a blue light exposure Nrf2-deficient mouse model is created, which is susceptible to light-induced retinal lesions. After blue light irradiation, retina degeneration and an overproduction of ROS are observed. The polydopamine-replenishing strategy demonstrated effectiveness in maintaining retinal structural integrity and preventing retina degeneration by reducing ROS production in retinal cells and limiting the phototoxicity of blue light exposure. These findings highlight the potential of polydopamine as a simple and effective replenishment for providing photoprotection against high-energy blue light exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Su Kwon
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Julie Munsoor
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Mary Kaufmann
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Min Zheng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Alex I Smirnov
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Zongchao Han
- Department of Ophthalmology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
- Division of Pharmacoengineering & Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
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Campbell JM, Gosnell M, Agha A, Handley S, Knab A, Anwer AG, Bhargava A, Goldys EM. Label-Free Assessment of Key Biological Autofluorophores: Material Characteristics and Opportunities for Clinical Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024:e2403761. [PMID: 38775184 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202403761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 05/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Autofluorophores are endogenous fluorescent compounds that naturally occur in the intra and extracellular spaces of all tissues and organs. Most have vital biological functions - like the metabolic cofactors NAD(P)H and FAD+, as well as the structural protein collagen. Others are considered to be waste products - like lipofuscin and advanced glycation end products - which accumulate with age and are associated with cellular dysfunction. Due to their natural fluorescence, these materials have great utility for enabling non-invasive, label-free assays with direct ties to biological function. Numerous technologies, with different advantages and drawbacks, are applied to their assessment, including fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy, hyperspectral microscopy, and flow cytometry. Here, the applications of label-free autofluorophore assessment are reviewed for clinical and health-research applications, with specific attention to biomaterials, disease detection, surgical guidance, treatment monitoring, and tissue assessment - fields that greatly benefit from non-invasive methodologies capable of continuous, in vivo characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared M Campbell
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2033, Australia
| | | | - Adnan Agha
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2033, Australia
| | - Shannon Handley
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2033, Australia
| | - Aline Knab
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2033, Australia
| | - Ayad G Anwer
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2033, Australia
| | - Akanksha Bhargava
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2033, Australia
| | - Ewa M Goldys
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2033, Australia
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Feldman TB, Dontsov AE, Yakovleva MA, Ostrovsky MA. Photobiology of lipofuscin granules in the retinal pigment epithelium cells of the eye: norm, pathology, age. Biophys Rev 2022; 14:1051-1065. [PMID: 36124271 PMCID: PMC9481861 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-022-00989-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipofuscin granules (LGs) are accumulated in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. The progressive LG accumulation can somehow lead to pathology and accelerate the aging process. The review examines composition, spectral properties and photoactivity of LGs isolated from the human cadaver eyes. By use of atomic force microscopy and near-field microscopy, we have revealed the fluorescent heterogeneity of LGs. We have discovered the generation of reactive oxygen species by LGs, and found that LGs and melanolipofuscin granules are capable of photoinduced oxidation of lipids. It was shown that A2E, as the main fluorophore (bisretinoid) of LGs, is much less active as an oxidation photosensitizer than other fluorophores (bisretinoids) of LGs. Photooxidized products of bisretinoids pose a much greater danger to the cell than non-oxidized one. Our studies of the fluorescent properties of LGs and their fluorophores (bisretinoids) showed for the first time that their spectral characteristics change (shift to the short-wavelength region) in pathology and after exposure to ionizing radiation. By recording the fluorescence spectra and fluorescence decay kinetics of oxidized products of LG fluorophores, it is possible to improve the methods of early diagnosis of degenerative diseases. Lipofuscin ("aging pigment") is not an inert "slag". The photoactivity of LGs can pose a significant danger to the RPE cells. Fluorescence characteristics of LGs are a tool to detect early stages of degeneration in the retina and RPE.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. B. Feldman
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
- Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - A. E. Dontsov
- Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - M. A. Yakovleva
- Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - M. A. Ostrovsky
- Department of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
- Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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8
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Lipofuscin Granule Bisretinoid Oxidation in the Human Retinal Pigment Epithelium forms Cytotoxic Carbonyls. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23:ijms23010222. [PMID: 35008647 PMCID: PMC8745408 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the primary cause of central blindness among the elderly. AMD is associated with progressive accumulation of lipofuscin granules in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. Lipofuscin contains bisretinoid fluorophores, which are photosensitizers and are phototoxic to RPE and neuroretinal cells. In the presence of oxygen, bisretinoids are also oxidized, forming various products, consisting primarily of aldehydes and ketones, which are also potentially cytotoxic. In a prior study, we identified that in AMD, bisretinoid oxidation products are increased in RPE lipofuscin granules. The purpose of the present study was to determine if these products were toxic to cellular structures. The physicochemical characteristics of bisretinoid oxidation products in lipofuscin, which were obtained from healthy donor eyes, were studied. Raman spectroscopy and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF–SIMS) analysis identified the presence of free-state aldehydes and ketones within the lipofuscin granules. Together, fluorescence spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography, and mass spectrometry revealed that bisretinoid oxidation products have both hydrophilic and amphiphilic properties, allowing their diffusion through lipofuscin granule membrane into the RPE cell cytoplasm. These products contain cytotoxic carbonyls, which can modify cellular proteins and lipids. Therefore, bisretinoid oxidation products are a likely aggravating factor in the pathogenesis of AMD.
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Cheng KJ, Hsieh CM, Nepali K, Liou JP. Ocular Disease Therapeutics: Design and Delivery of Drugs for Diseases of the Eye. J Med Chem 2020; 63:10533-10593. [PMID: 32482069 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The ocular drug discovery field has evidenced significant advancement in the past decade. The FDA approvals of Rhopressa, Vyzulta, and Roclatan for glaucoma, Brolucizumab for wet age-related macular degeneration (wet AMD), Luxturna for retinitis pigmentosa, Dextenza (0.4 mg dexamethasone intracanalicular insert) for ocular inflammation, ReSure sealant to seal corneal incisions, and Lifitegrast for dry eye represent some of the major developments in the field of ocular therapeutics. A literature survey also indicates that gene therapy, stem cell therapy, and target discovery through genomic research represent significant promise as potential strategies to achieve tissue repair or regeneration and to attain therapeutic benefits in ocular diseases. Overall, the emergence of new technologies coupled with first-in-class entries in ophthalmology are highly anticipated to restructure and boost the future trends in the field of ophthalmic drug discovery. This perspective focuses on various aspects of ocular drug discovery and the recent advances therein. Recent medicinal chemistry campaigns along with a brief overview of the structure-activity relationships of the diverse chemical classes and developments in ocular drug delivery (ODD) are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuei-Ju Cheng
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 11031, Taiwan.,Department of Pharmacy, Taipei Municipal Wanfang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, No. 111, Section 3, Xing-Long Road, Taipei 11696, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Ming Hsieh
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Kunal Nepali
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Jing-Ping Liou
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wuxing Street, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
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Moreno-García A, Kun A, Calero O, Medina M, Calero M. An Overview of the Role of Lipofuscin in Age-Related Neurodegeneration. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:464. [PMID: 30026686 PMCID: PMC6041410 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite aging being by far the greatest risk factor for highly prevalent neurodegenerative disorders, the molecular underpinnings of age-related brain changes are still not well understood, particularly the transition from normal healthy brain aging to neuropathological aging. Aging is an extremely complex, multifactorial process involving the simultaneous interplay of several processes operating at many levels of the functional organization. The buildup of potentially toxic protein aggregates and their spreading through various brain regions has been identified as a major contributor to these pathologies. One of the most striking morphologic changes in neurons during normal aging is the accumulation of lipofuscin (LF) aggregates, as well as, neuromelanin pigments. LF is an autofluorescent lipopigment formed by lipids, metals and misfolded proteins, which is especially abundant in nerve cells, cardiac muscle cells and skin. Within the Central Nervous System (CNS), LF accumulates as aggregates, delineating a specific senescence pattern in both physiological and pathological states, altering neuronal cytoskeleton and cellular trafficking and metabolism, and being associated with neuronal loss, and glial proliferation and activation. Traditionally, the accumulation of LF in the CNS has been considered a secondary consequence of the aging process, being a mere bystander of the pathological buildup associated with different neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we discuss recent evidence suggesting the possibility that LF aggregates may have an active role in neurodegeneration. We argue that LF is a relevant effector of aging that represents a risk factor or driver for neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alejandra Kun
- Biochemistry Section, Science School, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Protein and Nucleic Acids Department, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Olga Calero
- Chronic Disease Programme-CROSADIS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Medina
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
- Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Queen Sofia Foundation Alzheimer Center, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Calero
- Chronic Disease Programme-CROSADIS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain
- Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Queen Sofia Foundation Alzheimer Center, Madrid, Spain
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