1
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Kłosowska-Chomiczewska IE, Macierzanka A, Parchem K, Miłosz P, Bladowska S, Płaczkowska I, Hewelt-Belka W, Jungnickel C. Microbe cultivation guidelines to optimize rhamnolipid applications. Sci Rep 2024; 14:8362. [PMID: 38600115 PMCID: PMC11006924 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-59021-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
In the growing landscape of interest in natural surfactants, selecting the appropriate one for specific applications remains challenging. The extensive, yet often unsystematized, knowledge of microbial surfactants, predominantly represented by rhamnolipids (RLs), typically does not translate beyond the conditions presented in scientific publications. This limitation stems from the numerous variables and their interdependencies that characterize microbial surfactant production. We hypothesized that a computational recipe for biosynthesizing RLs with targeted applicational properties could be developed from existing literature and experimental data. We amassed literature data on RL biosynthesis and micellar solubilization and augmented it with our experimental results on the solubilization of triglycerides (TGs), a topic underrepresented in current literature. Utilizing this data, we constructed mathematical models that can predict RL characteristics and solubilization efficiency, represented as logPRL = f(carbon and nitrogen source, parameters of biosynthesis) and logMSR = f(solubilizate, rhamnolipid (e.g. logPRL), parameters of solubilization), respectively. The models, characterized by robust R2 values of respectively 0.581-0.997 and 0.804, enabled the ranking of descriptors based on their significance and impact-positive or negative-on the predicted values. These models have been translated into ready-to-use calculators, tools designed to streamline the selection process for identifying a biosurfactant optimally suited for intended applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona E Kłosowska-Chomiczewska
- Department of Colloid and Lipid Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Adam Macierzanka
- Department of Colloid and Lipid Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Karol Parchem
- Department of Chemistry, Technology and Biotechnology of Food, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Pamela Miłosz
- Department of Colloid and Lipid Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Sonia Bladowska
- Department of Colloid and Lipid Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Iga Płaczkowska
- Department of Colloid and Lipid Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Weronika Hewelt-Belka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Christian Jungnickel
- Department of Colloid and Lipid Science, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 11/12 G. Narutowicza St., 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
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2
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Chen J, Yu X, Lu X, Wang W, Pan J, Yin Q, Wei B, Zhang H, Wang H. Biosynthesis and Gene Regulation of Rhamnolipid Congeners. Curr Microbiol 2023; 80:302. [PMID: 37493824 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-023-03405-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Rhamnolipid congeners have been widely used in agriculture and biomedicine as potent surfactants. They have recently attracted attention due to their diverse and versatile biological functions, which include an important bacterial virulence factor that makes them attractive targets for research into biosynthetic pathways and gene regulation. The intricate gene expression and regulation network controlling their biosynthesis remain to be completely understood. This article summarizes current knowledge about the biosynthesis pathways and regulatory mechanisms of rhamnolipid congeners, that meet the pharmacological needs of human health and agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwei Chen
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Xiaoya Yu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xingyue Lu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wei Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiangwei Pan
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qunjian Yin
- Laboratory of Tropical Marine Ecosystem and Bioresource, Fourth Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beihai, China
| | - Bin Wei
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Huawei Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hong Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science & Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals & Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education & Key Laboratory, Pharmaceutical Engineering of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.
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3
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Miró-Vinyals B, Artigues M, Wostrikoff K, Monte E, Broto-Puig F, Leivar P, Planas A. Chloroplast engineering of the green microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for the production of HAA, the lipid moiety of rhamnolipid biosurfactants. N Biotechnol 2023; 76:1-12. [PMID: 37004923 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2023.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Hydroxyalkanoyloxyalkanoates (HAA) are lipidic surfactants with a number of potential applications, but more remarkably, they are the biosynthetic precursors of rhamnolipids (RL), which are preferred biosurfactants thanks to their excellent physicochemical properties, biological activities, and environmental biodegradability. Because the natural highest producer of RLs is the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, important efforts have been dedicated to transfer production to heterologous non-pathogenic microorganisms. Unicellular photosynthetic microalgae are emerging as important hosts for sustainable industrial biotechnology due to their ability to transform CO2 efficiently into biomass and bioproducts of interest. Here, we have explored the potential of the eukaryotic green microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii as a chassis to produce RLs. Chloroplast genome engineering allowed the stable functional expression of the gene encoding RhlA acyltransferase from P. aeruginosa, an enzyme catalyzing the condensation of two 3-hydroxyacyl acid intermediaries in the fatty acid synthase cycle, to produce HAA. Four congeners of varying chain lengths were identified and quantified by UHPLC-QTOF mass spectrometry and gas chromatography, including C10-C10 and C10-C8, and the less abundant C10-C12 and C10-C6 congeners. HAA was present in the intracellular fraction, but also showed increased accumulation in the extracellular medium. Moreover, HAA production was also observed under photoautotrophic conditions based on atmospheric CO2. These results establish that RhlA is active in the chloroplast and is able to produce a new pool of HAA in a eukaryotic host. Subsequent engineering of microalgal strains should contribute to the development of an alternative clean, safe and cost-effective platform for the sustainable production of RLs. DATA AVAILABILITY: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.
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4
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Hu R, Fu L, Chen Y, Chen J, Qiao Y, Si T. Protein engineering via Bayesian optimization-guided evolutionary algorithm and robotic experiments. Brief Bioinform 2023; 24:6958505. [PMID: 36562723 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbac570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Directed protein evolution applies repeated rounds of genetic mutagenesis and phenotypic screening and is often limited by experimental throughput. Through in silico prioritization of mutant sequences, machine learning has been applied to reduce wet lab burden to a level practical for human researchers. On the other hand, robotics permits large batches and rapid iterations for protein engineering cycles, but such capacities have not been well exploited in existing machine learning-assisted directed evolution approaches. Here, we report a scalable and batched method, Bayesian Optimization-guided EVOlutionary (BO-EVO) algorithm, to guide multiple rounds of robotic experiments to explore protein fitness landscapes of combinatorial mutagenesis libraries. We first examined various design specifications based on an empirical landscape of protein G domain B1. Then, BO-EVO was successfully generalized to another empirical landscape of an Escherichia coli kinase PhoQ, as well as simulated NK landscapes with up to moderate epistasis. This approach was then applied to guide robotic library creation and screening to engineer enzyme specificity of RhlA, a key biosynthetic enzyme for rhamnolipid biosurfactants. A 4.8-fold improvement in producing a target rhamnolipid congener was achieved after examining less than 1% of all possible mutants after four iterations. Overall, BO-EVO proves to be an efficient and general approach to guide combinatorial protein engineering without prior knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruyun Hu
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Lihao Fu
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China.,CAS Key Laboratory for Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen 518055, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yongcan Chen
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China.,CAS Key Laboratory for Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Junyu Chen
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yu Qiao
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Tong Si
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China.,CAS Key Laboratory for Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen 518055, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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5
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Achieving “Non-Foaming” Rhamnolipid Production and Productivity Rebounds of Pseudomonas aeruginosa under Weakly Acidic Fermentation. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061091. [PMID: 35744608 PMCID: PMC9227327 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The rhamnolipid production of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been impeded by its severe foaming; overcoming the bottleneck of foaming has become the most urgent requirement for rhamnolipid production in recent decades. In this study, we performed rhamnolipid fermentation under weakly acidic conditions to address this bottleneck. The results showed that the foaming behavior of rhamnolipid fermentation broths was pH-dependent with the foaming ability decreasing from 162.8% to 28.6% from pH 8 to 4. The “non-foaming” rhamnolipid fermentation can be realized at pH 5.5, but the biosynthesis of rhamnolipids was significantly inhibited. Further, rhamnolipid yield rebounded from 8.1 g/L to 15.4 g/L after ultraviolet and ethyl methanesulfonate compound mutagenesis. The mechanism study showed that the species changes of rhamnolipid homologs did not affect the foaming behavior of the fermentation but had a slight effect on the bioactivity of rhamnolipids. At pH 8.0 to 5.0, increased surface tension, decreased viscosity and zeta potential, and aggregation of rhamnolipid molecules contributed to the “non-foaming” rhamnolipid fermentation. This study provides a promising avenue for the “non-foaming” rhamnolipid fermentation and elucidates the mechanisms involved, facilitating the understanding of pH-associated foaming behavior and developing a more efficient strategy for achieving rhamnolipid production.
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6
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Blunt W, Blanchard C, Morley K. Effects of environmental parameters on microbial rhamnolipid biosynthesis and bioreactor strategies for enhanced productivity. Biochem Eng J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2022.108436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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7
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Overview on Glycosylated Lipids Produced by Bacteria and Fungi: Rhamno-, Sophoro-, Mannosylerythritol and Cellobiose Lipids. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 181:73-122. [DOI: 10.1007/10_2021_200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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8
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Jung H, Meile C. Pore-Scale Numerical Investigation of Evolving Porosity and Permeability Driven by Biofilm Growth. Transp Porous Media 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11242-021-01654-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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9
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Gercke D, Furtmann C, Tozakidis IEP, Jose J. Highly Crystalline Post‐Consumer PET Waste Hydrolysis by Surface Displayed PETase Using a Bacterial Whole‐Cell Biocatalyst. ChemCatChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202100443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Gercke
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie PharmaCampus Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Christoph Furtmann
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie PharmaCampus Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Iasson E. P. Tozakidis
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie PharmaCampus Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Joachim Jose
- Institut für Pharmazeutische und Medizinische Chemie PharmaCampus Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster Corrensstrasse 48 48149 Münster Germany
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10
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Wittgens A, Rosenau F. Heterologous Rhamnolipid Biosynthesis: Advantages, Challenges, and the Opportunity to Produce Tailor-Made Rhamnolipids. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:594010. [PMID: 33195161 PMCID: PMC7642724 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.594010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The first heterologous expression of genes responsible for the production of rhamnolipids was already implemented in the mid-1990s during the functional identification of the rhlAB operon. This was the starting shot for multiple approaches to establish the rhamnolipid biosynthesis in different host organisms. Since most of the native rhamnolipid producing organisms are human or plant pathogens, the intention for these ventures was the establishment of non-pathogenic organisms as heterologous host for the production of rhamnolipids. The pathogenicity of producing organisms is one of the bottlenecks for applications of rhamnolipids in many industrial products especially foods and cosmetics. The further advantage of heterologous rhamnolipid production is the circumvention of the complex regulatory network, which regulates the rhamnolipid biosynthesis in wild type production strains. Furthermore, a suitable host with an optimal genetic background to provide sufficient amounts of educts allows the production of tailor-made rhamnolipids each with its specific physico-chemical properties depending on the contained numbers of rhamnose sugar residues and the numbers, chain length and saturation degree of 3-hydroxyfatty acids. The heterologous expression of rhl genes can also enable the utilization of unusual carbon sources for the production of rhamnolipids depending on the host organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Wittgens
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany.,Ulm Center for Peptide Pharmaceuticals (U-PEP), Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Frank Rosenau
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany.,Ulm Center for Peptide Pharmaceuticals (U-PEP), Ulm University, Ulm, Germany.,Department Synthesis of Macromolecules, Max-Planck-Institute for Polymer Research Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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11
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Rani M, Weadge JT, Jabaji S. Isolation and Characterization of Biosurfactant-Producing Bacteria From Oil Well Batteries With Antimicrobial Activities Against Food-Borne and Plant Pathogens. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:64. [PMID: 32256455 PMCID: PMC7093026 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial biosurfactants, produced by fungi, yeast, and bacteria, are surface-active compounds with emulsifying properties that have a number of known activities, including the solubilization of microbial biofilms. In an on-going survey to uncover new or enhanced antimicrobial metabolite-producing microbes from harsh environments, such as oil-rich niches, 123 bacterial strains were isolated from three oil batteries in the region of Chauvin, Alberta, and characterized by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Based on their nucleotide sequences, the strains are associated with 3 phyla (Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria and Firmicutes), as well as 17 other discrete genera that shared high homology with known sequences, with the majority of these strains identified to the species level. The most prevalent strains associated with the three oil wells belonged to the Bacillus genus. Thirty-four of the 123 strains were identified as biosurfactant-producers, among which Bacillus methylotrophicus strain OB9 exhibited the highest biosurfactant activity based on multiple screening methods and a comparative analysis with the commercially available biosurfactant, Tween 20. B. methylotrophicus OB9 was selected for further antimicrobial analysis and addition of live cultures of B. methylotrophicus OB9 (or partially purified biosurfactant fractions thereof) were highly effective on biofilm disruption in agar diffusion assays against several Gram-negative food-borne bacteria and plant pathogens. Upon co-culturing with B. methylotrophicus OB9, the number of either Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica Newport SL1 or Xanthomonas campestris B07.007 cells significantly decreased after 6 h and were not retrieved from co-cultures following 12 h exposure. These results also translated to studies on plants, where bacterized tomato seedlings with OB9 significantly protected the tomato leaves from Salmonella enterica Newport SL1 contamination, as evidenced by a 40% reduction of log10 CFU of Salmonella/mg leaf tissue compared to non-bacterized tomato leaves. When B. methylotrophicus 0B9 was used for bacterized lettuce, the growth of X. campestris B07.007, the causal agent of bacterial leaf spot of lettuce, was completely inhibited. While limited, these studies are noteworthy as they demonstrate the inhibition spectrum of B. methylotrophicus 0B9 against both human and plant pathogens; thereby making this bacterium attractive for agricultural and food safety applications in a climate where microbial-biofilm persistence is an increasing problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamta Rani
- Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Joel T. Weadge
- Department of Biology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Suha Jabaji
- Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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12
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Du J, Zhang A, Zhang X, Si X, Cao J. Comparative analysis of rhamnolipid congener synthesis in neotype Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145 and two marine isolates. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2019; 286:121380. [PMID: 31048264 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.121380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A comparative study of rhamnolipid congener synthesis was performed using the neotype Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145 and two marine isolates (1A01151 and 1A00364). Compared with the neotype, 1A01151 and 1A00364 showed increased production of rhamnolipids containing higher proportion of congeners with longer fatty acid chains (C10-C12 and C10-C12:1) and/or di-rhamnose moiety. These could reduce surface tension of water to lower minimum values of 21.3 mN m-1 and 25.7 mN m-1. The comparative profile of rhamnolipid congener composition, fatty acid content and gene expression suggested that elevated expression of rhlAB and rhlC throughout the fermentation process and enhanced accumulation of dTDP-l-rhamnose and fatty acid precursors (C12 and C12:1) at the onset of rhamnolipid accumulation were related to improved rhamnolipid production and surface-active property. This work provides insights into the metabolic relationship between rhamnolipids and related precursor biosynthesis, and could therefore be beneficial for process optimization for efficient rhamnolipid congener production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Du
- The Institute of Seawater Desalination and Multipurpose Utilization, MNR, Tianjin 300192, PR China.
| | - Aijun Zhang
- The Institute of Seawater Desalination and Multipurpose Utilization, MNR, Tianjin 300192, PR China
| | - Xiaoqing Zhang
- The Institute of Seawater Desalination and Multipurpose Utilization, MNR, Tianjin 300192, PR China
| | - Xiaoguang Si
- The Institute of Seawater Desalination and Multipurpose Utilization, MNR, Tianjin 300192, PR China
| | - Junrui Cao
- The Institute of Seawater Desalination and Multipurpose Utilization, MNR, Tianjin 300192, PR China
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13
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Dulcey CE, López de Los Santos Y, Létourneau M, Déziel E, Doucet N. Semi-rational evolution of the 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkanoate (HAA) synthase RhlA to improve rhamnolipid production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia glumae. FEBS J 2019; 286:4036-4059. [PMID: 31177633 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The 3-(3-hydroxyalkanoyloxy)alkanoate (HAA) synthase RhlA is an essential enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of HAAs in Pseudomonas and Burkholderia species. RhlA modulates the aliphatic chain length in rhamnolipids, conferring distinct physicochemical properties to these biosurfactants exhibiting promising industrial and pharmaceutical value. A detailed molecular understanding of substrate specificity and catalytic performance in RhlA could offer protein engineering tools to develop designer variants involved in the synthesis of novel rhamnolipid mixtures for tailored eco-friendly products. However, current directed evolution progress remains limited due to the absence of high-throughput screening methodologies and lack of an experimentally resolved RhlA structure. In the present work, we used comparative modeling and chimeric-based approaches to perform a comprehensive semi-rational mutagenesis of RhlA from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Our extensive RhlA mutational variants and chimeric hybrids between the Pseudomonas and Burkholderia homologs illustrate selective modulation of rhamnolipid alkyl chain length in both Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia glumae. Our results also demonstrate the implication of a putative cap-domain motif that covers the catalytic site of the enzyme and provides substrate specificity to RhlA. This semi-rational mutant-based survey reveals promising 'hot-spots' for the modulation of RL congener patterns and potential control of enzyme activity, in addition to uncovering residue positions that modulate substrate selectivity between the Pseudomonas and Burkholderia functional homologs. DATABASE: Model data are available in the PMDB database under the accession number PM0081867.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Eduardo Dulcey
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Université du Québec, Laval, Canada
| | - Yossef López de Los Santos
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Université du Québec, Laval, Canada
| | - Myriam Létourneau
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Université du Québec, Laval, Canada
| | - Eric Déziel
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Université du Québec, Laval, Canada
| | - Nicolas Doucet
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Université du Québec, Laval, Canada.,PROTEO, the Québec Network for Research on Protein Function, Engineering, and Applications, Université Laval, Canada
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14
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Tan YN, Li Q. Microbial production of rhamnolipids using sugars as carbon sources. Microb Cell Fact 2018; 17:89. [PMID: 29884194 PMCID: PMC5994124 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-0938-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhamnolipids are a class of biosurfactants with effective surface-active properties. The high cost of microbial production of rhamnolipids largely affects their commercial applications. To reduce the production post, research has been carried out in screening more powerful strains, engineering microbes with higher biosurfactant yields and exploring cheaper substrates to reduce the production cost. Extensive refining is required for biosurfactant production using oils and oil-containing wastes, necessitating the use of complex and expensive biosurfactant recovery methods such as extraction with solvents or acid precipitation. As raw materials normally can account for 10-30% of the overall production cost, sugars have been proven to be an alternative carbon source for microbial production of rhamnolipids due to its lower costs and straightforward processing techniques. Studies have thus been focused on using tropical agroindustrial crop residues as renewable substrates. Herein, we reviewed studies that are using sugar-containing substrates as carbon sources for producing rhamnolipids. We speculate that sugars derived from agricultural wastes rich in cellulose and sugar-containing wastes are potential carbon sources in fermentation while challenges still remain in large scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Nian Tan
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459 Singapore
- Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 1 Pesek Road, Singapore, Jurong Island 627833 Singapore
| | - Qingxin Li
- Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 1 Pesek Road, Singapore, Jurong Island 627833 Singapore
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15
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Abstract
Background Rhamnolipids are the most extensively studied biosurfactants and has been successfully used in various areas from bioremediation to industrial fields. Rhamnolipids structural composition decide their physicochemical properties. Different physicochemical properties influence their application potential. Rhamnolipids can be produced at both aerobic conditions and anaerobic conditions by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This study aims to evaluate the oxygen effects on the rhamnolipids yield, structural composition, physicochemical properties and the rhl-genes expression in P. aeruginosa SG. Results will guide researchers to regulate microbial cells to synthesize rhamnolipids with different activity according to diverse application requirements. Results Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that rhlAB genes were down-regulated under anaerobic conditions. Therefore, strain P. aeruginosa SG anaerobically produced less rhamnolipids (0.68 g/L) than that (11.65 g/L) under aerobic conditions when grown in media containing glycerol and nitrate. HPLC–MS analysis showed that aerobically produced rhamnolipids mainly contained Rha-C8-C10, Rha–Rha-C10-C12:1 and Rha–Rha-C8-C10; anaerobically produced rhamnolipids mainly contained Rha-C10-C12 and Rha-C10-C10. Anaerobically produced rhamnolipids contained more mono-rhamnolipids (94.7%) than that (54.8%) in aerobically produced rhamnolipids. rhlC gene was also down-regulated under anaerobic conditions, catalyzing less mono-rhamnolipids to form di-rhamnolipids. Aerobically produced rhamnolipids decreased air–water surface tension (ST) from 72.2 to 27.9 mN/m with critical micelle concentration (CMC) of 60 mg/L; anaerobically produced rhamnolipids reduced ST to 33.1 mN/m with CMC of 80 mg/L. Anaerobically produced rhamnolipids emulsified crude oil with EI24 = 80.3%, and aerobically produced rhamnolipids emulsified crude oil with EI24 = 62.3%. Both two rhamnolipids products retained surface activity (ST < 35.0 mN/m) and emulsifying activity (EI24 > 60.0%) under temperatures (4–121 °C), pH values (4–10) and NaCl concentrations less than 90 g/L. Conclusions Oxygen affected the rhl-genes expression in P. aeruginosa, thus altering the rhamnolipids yield, structural composition and physicochemical properties. Rhamnolipids produced at aerobic or anaerobic conditions was structurally distinct. Two rhamnolipids products had different application potential in diverse biotechnologies. Although both rhamnolipids products were thermo-stable and halo-tolerant, aerobically produced rhamnolipids possessed better surface activity, implying its well wetting activity and desorption property; anaerobically produced rhamnolipids exhibited better emulsifying activity, indicating its applicability for enhanced oil recovery and bioremediation of petroleum pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pollution Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, China.
| | - Rongjiu Shi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pollution Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, China
| | - Fang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Siqin Han
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pollution Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pollution Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shenyang, 110016, Liaoning, China.
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Tiso T, Zauter R, Tulke H, Leuchtle B, Li WJ, Behrens B, Wittgens A, Rosenau F, Hayen H, Blank LM. Designer rhamnolipids by reduction of congener diversity: production and characterization. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:225. [PMID: 29241456 PMCID: PMC5729600 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-017-0838-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Rhamnolipids are biosurfactants featuring surface-active properties that render them suitable for a broad range of industrial applications. These properties include their emulsification and foaming capacity, critical micelle concentration, and ability to lower surface tension. Further, aspects like biocompatibility and environmental friendliness are becoming increasingly important. Rhamnolipids are mainly produced by pathogenic bacteria like Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We previously designed and constructed a recombinant Pseudomonas putida KT2440, which synthesizes rhamnolipids by decoupling production from host-intrinsic regulations and cell growth. Results Here, the molecular structure of the rhamnolipids, i.e., different congeners produced by engineered P. putida are reported. Natural rhamnolipid producers can synthesize mono- and di-rhamnolipids, containing one or two rhamnose molecules, respectively. Of each type of rhamnolipid four main congeners are produced, deviating in the chain lengths of the β-hydroxy-fatty acids. The resulting eight main rhamnolipid congeners with variable numbers of hydrophobic/hydrophilic residues and their mixtures feature different physico-chemical properties that might lead to diverse applications. We engineered a microbial cell factory to specifically produce three different biosurfactant mixtures: a mixture of di- and mono-rhamnolipids, mono-rhamnolipids only, and hydroxyalkanoyloxy alkanoates, the precursors of rhamnolipid synthesis, consisting only of β-hydroxy-fatty acids. To support the possibility of second generation biosurfactant production with our engineered microbial cell factory, we demonstrate rhamnolipid production from sustainable carbon sources, including glycerol and xylose. A simple purification procedure resulted in biosurfactants with purities of up to 90%. Finally, through determination of properties specific for surface active compounds, we were able to show that the different mixtures indeed feature different physico-chemical characteristics. Conclusions The approach demonstrated here is a first step towards the production of designer biosurfactants, tailor-made for specific applications by purposely adjusting the congener composition of the mixtures. Not only were we able to genetically engineer our cell factory to produce specific biosurfactant mixtures, but we also showed that the products are suited for different applications. These designer biosurfactants can be produced as part of a biorefinery from second generation carbon sources such as xylose. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-017-0838-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Till Tiso
- iAMB-Institute of Applied Microbiology, ABBt-Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Rabea Zauter
- iAMB-Institute of Applied Microbiology, ABBt-Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Hannah Tulke
- iAMB-Institute of Applied Microbiology, ABBt-Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Bernd Leuchtle
- iAMB-Institute of Applied Microbiology, ABBt-Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Wing-Jin Li
- iAMB-Institute of Applied Microbiology, ABBt-Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Beate Behrens
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 30, 48149, Münster, Germany.,Doehler GmbH, Riedstraße 7-9, 64295, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Andreas Wittgens
- Ulm Center for Peptide Pharmaceuticals (U-PEP), Ulm-University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Frank Rosenau
- Ulm Center for Peptide Pharmaceuticals (U-PEP), Ulm-University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Heiko Hayen
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 30, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Lars Mathias Blank
- iAMB-Institute of Applied Microbiology, ABBt-Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
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17
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Si T, Li B, Comi TJ, Wu Y, Hu P, Wu Y, Min Y, Mitchell DA, Zhao H, Sweedler JV. Profiling of Microbial Colonies for High-Throughput Engineering of Multistep Enzymatic Reactions via Optically Guided Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:12466-12473. [PMID: 28792758 PMCID: PMC5600186 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b04641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-ToF) mass spectrometry (MS) imaging has been used for rapid phenotyping of enzymatic activities, but is mainly limited to single-step conversions. Herein we report a label-free method for high-throughput engineering of multistep biochemical reactions based on optically guided MALDI-ToF MS analysis of bacterial colonies. The bacterial cells provide containment of multiple enzymes and access to substrates and cofactors via metabolism. Automated MALDI-ToF MS acquisition from randomly distributed colonies simplifies procedures to prepare strain libraries without liquid handling. MALDI-ToF MS profiling was utilized to screen both substrate and enzyme libraries for natural product biosynthesis. Computational algorithms were developed to process and visualize the resulting mass spectral data sets. For analogues of the peptidic antibiotic plantazolicin, multivariate analyses by t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding were used to group similar spectra for rapid identification of nonisobaric variants. After MALDI-ToF MS screening, follow-up analyses using high-resolution MS and tandem MS were readily performed on the same sample target. Separately, relative ion intensities of rhamnolipid congeners with various lipid moieties were evaluated to engineer enzymatic specificity. The glycolipid profiles of each colony were overlaid with optical images to facilitate the recovery of desirable mutants. For both the antibiotic and rhamnolipid cases, large populations of colonies were rapidly surveyed at the molecular level, providing information-rich insights not easily obtained with traditional screening assays. Utilizing standard microbiological techniques with routine microscopy and MALDI-ToF MS instruments, this simple yet effective workflow is applicable for a wide range of screening campaigns targeting multistep enzymatic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing 210009, China
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18
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Chong H, Li Q. Microbial production of rhamnolipids: opportunities, challenges and strategies. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:137. [PMID: 28779757 PMCID: PMC5544971 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-017-0753-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhamnolipids are a class of biosurfactants which contain rhamnose as the sugar moiety linked to β-hydroxylated fatty acid chains. Rhamnolipids can be widely applied in many industries including petroleum, food, agriculture and bioremediation etc. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is still the most competent producer of rhamnolipids, but its pathogenicity may cause safety and health concerns during large-scale production and applications. Therefore, extensive studies have been carried out to explore safe and economical methods to produce rhamnolipids. Various metabolic engineering efforts have also been applied to either P. aeruginosa for improving its rhamnolipid production and diminishing its pathogenicity, or to other non-pathogenic strains by introducing the key genes for safe production of rhamnolipids. The three key enzymes for rhamnolipid biosynthesis, RhlA, RhlB and RhlC, are found almost exclusively in Pseudomonas sp. and Burkholderia sp., but have been successfully expressed in several non-pathogenic host bacteria to produce rhamnolipids in large scales. The composition of mono- and di-rhamnolipids can also be modified through altering the expression levels of RhlB and RhlC. In addition, cell-free rhamnolipid synthesis by using the key enzymes and precursors from non-pathogenic sources is thought to not only eliminate pathogenic effects and simplify the downstream purification processes, but also to circumvent the complexity of quorum sensing system that regulates rhamnolipid biosynthesis. The pathogenicity of P. aeruginosa can also be reduced or eliminated through in vivo or in vitro enzymatic degradation of the toxins such as pyocyanin during rhamnolipid production. The rhamnolipid production cost can also be significantly reduced if rhamnolipid purification step can be bypassed, such as utilizing the fermentation broth or the rhamnolipid-producing strains directly in the industrial applications of rhamnolipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiqing Chong
- Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, 627833 Singapore
| | - Qingxin Li
- Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 1 Pesek Road, Jurong Island, 627833 Singapore
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19
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Production of microbial biosurfactants: Status quo of rhamnolipid and surfactin towards large-scale production. Biotechnol J 2017; 12. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201600561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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20
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Biosynthesis of di-rhamnolipids and variations of congeners composition in genetically-engineered Escherichia coli. Biotechnol Lett 2017; 39:1041-1048. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-017-2333-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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21
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Wang W, Ma L, Lin P, Xu K. Separation and detection of amino acid metabolites ofEscherichia coliin microbial fuel cell with CE. Electrophoresis 2016; 37:2106-11. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201600007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, Fujian Provincial Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, School of Chemistry; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou Fujian P. R. China
| | - Lihong Ma
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, Fujian Provincial Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, School of Chemistry; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou Fujian P. R. China
| | - Ping Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, Fujian Provincial Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, School of Chemistry; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou Fujian P. R. China
| | - Kaixuan Xu
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, Fujian Provincial Key Lab of Analysis and Detection for Food Safety, School of Chemistry; Fuzhou University; Fuzhou Fujian P. R. China
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22
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Dobler L, Vilela LF, Almeida RV, Neves BC. Rhamnolipids in perspective: gene regulatory pathways, metabolic engineering, production and technological forecasting. N Biotechnol 2015; 33:123-35. [PMID: 26409933 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2015.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Rhamnolipids have emerged as a very promising class of biosurfactants in the last decades, exhibiting properties of great interest in several industrial applications, and have represented a suitable alternative to chemically-synthesized surfactants. This class of biosurfactants has been extensively studied in recent years, aiming at their large-scale production based on renewable resources, which still require high financial costs. Development of non-pathogenic, high-producing strains has been the focus of a number of studies involving heterologous microbial hosts as platforms. However, the intricate gene regulation network controlling rhamnolipid biosynthesis represents a challenge to metabolic engineering and remains to be further understood and explored. This article provides an overview of the biosynthetic pathways and the main gene regulatory factors involved in rhamnolipid production within Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the prototypal producing species. In addition, we provide a perspective view into the main strategies applied to metabolic engineering and biotechnological production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia Dobler
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leonardo F Vilela
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo V Almeida
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Bianca C Neves
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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23
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Protocols for the Detection and Chemical Characterisation of Microbial Glycolipids. SPRINGER PROTOCOLS HANDBOOKS 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/8623_2014_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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