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Tapia-Arreola AK, Ruiz-Garcia DA, Rodulfo H, Sharma A, De Donato M. High Frequency of Antibiotic Resistance Genes (ARGs) in the Lerma River Basin, Mexico. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph192113988. [PMID: 36360888 PMCID: PMC9657182 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192113988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The spread of beta-lactamase-producing bacteria is of great concern and the environment has been found to be a main source of contamination. Herein, it was proposed to determine the frequency of antimicrobial-resistant-Gram-negative bacteria throughout the Lerma River basin using phenotypic and molecular methods. Resistant bacteria were isolated with chromogenic media and antimicrobial susceptibility tests were used to characterize their resistance. ARGs for beta-lactams, aminoglycosides, and quinolones were detected by PCR. Species were identified by Sanger sequencing the 16S rRNA gene and the representative genomes of MDR strains were sequenced by NGS. A high variation in the number of isolates was observed in the 20 sampled sites, while observing a low diversity among the resistant bacteria. Of the 12 identified bacterial groups, C. freundii, E. coli, and S. marcescens were more predominant. A high frequency of resistance to beta-lactams, quinolones, and aminoglycosides was evidenced, where the blaCTX,qnrB, qnrS y, and aac(6')lb-cr genes were the most prevalent. C. freundii showed the highest frequency of MDR strains. Whole genome sequencing revealed that S. marcescens and K. pneumoniae showed a high number of shared virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes, while E. coli showed the highest number of unique genes. The contamination of the Lerma River with MDR strains carrying various ARGs should raise awareness among environmental authorities to assess the risks and regulations regarding the optimal hygienic and sanitary conditions for this important river that supports economic activities in the different communities in Mexico.
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Singh NS, Singhal N, Kumar M, Virdi JS. Public health implications of plasmid-mediated quinolone and aminoglycoside resistance genes in Escherichia coli inhabiting a major anthropogenic river of India. Epidemiol Infect 2022; 150:1-21. [PMID: 35343419 PMCID: PMC9044524 DOI: 10.1017/s095026882200053x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Presence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes in Escherichia coli inhabiting anthropogenic rivers is an important public health concern because plasmid-mediated AMR genes can easily spread to other pathogens by horizontal gene transfer. Besides β -lactams, quinolones and aminoglycosides are the major antibiotics against E. coli. In the present study, we have investigated the presence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) and aminoglycoside resistance genes in E. coli isolated from a major river of northern India. Our results revealed that majority of the strains were phenotypically susceptible for fluoroquinolones and some aminoglycosides like amikacin, netilmicin, tobramycin and gentamicin. However, 16.39% of the strains were resistant for streptomycin, 8.19% for kanamycin and 3.30% for gentamicin. Of the various PMQR genes investigated, only qnrS1 was present in 24.59% of the strains along with ISEcl2 . Aminoglycoside-resistance genes like strA-strB were found to be present in 16.39%, aphA1 in 8.19% and aacC 2 in only 3.30% of the strains. Though, no co-relation was observed between phenotypic resistance for fluorquinolones and presence of PMQR genes, phenotypic resistance for streptomycin, kanamycin and gentamicin exactly co-related with the presence of the genes strA-strB , aphA1 and aacC2 , respectively. Moreover, all the AMR genes discerned in aquatic E. coli were found to be situated on conjugative plasmids and, thus easily transferrable. Our study accentuates the importance of routine surveillance of urban rivers to curtail the spread of AMR genes in aquatic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nambram Somendro Singh
- Department of Microbiology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India
- Department of Biophysics, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India
| | - Neelja Singhal
- Department of Biophysics, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India
| | - Manish Kumar
- Department of Biophysics, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India
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Beattie RE, Skwor T, Hristova KR. Survivor microbial populations in post-chlorinated wastewater are strongly associated with untreated hospital sewage and include ceftazidime and meropenem resistant populations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 740:140186. [PMID: 32569917 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent has been implicated in the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB), including pathogens, as the WWTP environment contains multiple selective pressures that may increase mutation rates, pathogen survivability, and induce gene transfer between bacteria. In WWTPs receiving hospital sewage, this selective effect may be more pronounced due to increased concentrations of antibiotics, ARB, and clinical pathogens from hospital sewage. To determine the extent to which hospital sewage contributes to the microbial community of disinfected wastewater which is released into the environment, we used 16S rRNA sequencing of hospital sewage, WWTP influent, primary effluent, Post-Chlorinated Effluent, and receiving sediments in a combined sewage system to track changes in microbial community composition. We also sequenced the culturable survivor community resistant to β-lactam antibiotics within disinfected effluent. Using molecular source tracking, we found that the hospital sewage microbiome contributes an average of 11.49% of the microbial community in Post-Chlorinated Effluents, suggesting microorganisms identified within hospital sewage can survive or are enriched by the chlorination disinfection process. Additionally, we identified 28 potential pathogens to the species level, seven of which remained detectable in Post-Chlorinated Effluent and environmental sediments. When Post-Chlorinated Effluents were cultured on media containing β-lactam antibiotics ceftazidime and meropenem, a diverse antibiotic resistant survivor community was identified including potential human pathogens Bacillus cereus, Bacillus pumilus, and Chryseobacterium indologenes. Together, these results indicate that although wastewater treatment does significantly reduce pathogenic loads and ARBs, their continual presence in disinfected wastewater and receiving sediments suggests additional treatment and microbial tracking systems are needed to reduce human and animal health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachelle E Beattie
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, 1428 W Clybourn Street, Milwaukee 53233, WI, USA.
| | - Troy Skwor
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, Milwaukee 53211, WI, USA.
| | - Krassimira R Hristova
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, 1428 W Clybourn Street, Milwaukee 53233, WI, USA.
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Camiade M, Bodilis J, Chaftar N, Riah-Anglet W, Gardères J, Buquet S, Ribeiro AF, Pawlak B. Antibiotic resistance patterns of Pseudomonas spp. isolated from faecal wastes in the environment and contaminated surface water. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2020; 96:5702129. [PMID: 31930390 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiaa008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The Pseudomonas genus, which includes environmental and pathogenic species, is known to present antibiotic resistances, and can receive resistance genes from multi-resistant enteric bacteria released into the environment via faecal rejects. This study was aimed to investigate the resistome of Pseudomonas populations that have been in contact with these faecal bacteria. Thus, faecal discharges originating from human or cattle were sampled (from 12 points and two sampling campaigns) and 41 Pseudomonas species identified (316 isolates studied). The resistance phenotype to 25 antibiotics was determined in all isolates, and we propose a specific antibiotic resistance pattern for 14 species (from 2 to 9 resistances). None showed resistance to aminoglycosides, tetracycline, or polymyxins. Four species carried a very low number of resistances, with none to β-lactams. Interestingly, we observed the absence of the transcriptional activator soxR gene in these four species. No plasmid transfer was highlighted by conjugation assays, and a few class 1 but no class 2 integrons were detected in strains that may have received resistance genes from Enterobacteria. These results imply that the contribution of the Pseudomonas genus to the resistome of an ecosystem first depends on the structure of the Pseudomonas populations, as they may have very different resistance profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Camiade
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, Laboratoire Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale EA4358, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France.,Institut Polytechnique UniLaSalle, Laboratoire AGHYLE, Campus de Rouen, 76130 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France.,Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, Laboratoire de Microbiologie - Signaux et Microenvironnement EA4312, Campus de Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France.,Normandie Université, Fédération de Recherche Normandie-Végétal FED 4277, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
| | - Josselin Bodilis
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, Laboratoire de Microbiologie - Signaux et Microenvironnement EA4312, Campus de Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France.,Normandie Université, Fédération de Recherche Normandie-Végétal FED 4277, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
| | - Naouel Chaftar
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, Laboratoire de Microbiologie - Signaux et Microenvironnement EA4312, Campus de Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
| | - Wassila Riah-Anglet
- Institut Polytechnique UniLaSalle, Laboratoire AGHYLE, Campus de Rouen, 76130 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France.,Normandie Université, Fédération de Recherche Normandie-Végétal FED 4277, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
| | - Johan Gardères
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, Laboratoire de Microbiologie - Signaux et Microenvironnement EA4312, Campus de Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
| | - Sylvaine Buquet
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, IRSTEA, Laboratoire ECODIV, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
| | - Angela Flores Ribeiro
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, Laboratoire de Microbiologie - Signaux et Microenvironnement EA4312, Campus de Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
| | - Barbara Pawlak
- Normandie Université, UNIROUEN, Laboratoire Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire Végétale EA4358, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France.,Normandie Université, Fédération de Recherche Normandie-Végétal FED 4277, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan cedex, France
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Nnadozie CF, Odume ON. Freshwater environments as reservoirs of antibiotic resistant bacteria and their role in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 254:113067. [PMID: 31465907 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Freshwater environments are susceptible to possible contamination by residual antibiotics that are released through different sources, such as agricultural runoffs, sewage discharges and leaching from nearby farms. Freshwater environment can thus become reservoirs where an antibiotic impact microorganisms, and is an important public health concern. Degradation and dilution processes are fundamental for predicting the actual risk of antibiotic resistance dissemination from freshwater reservoirs. This study reviews major approaches for detecting and quantifying antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARBs) and genes (ARGs) in freshwater and their prevalence in these environments. Finally, the role of dilution, degradation, transmission and the persistence and fate of ARB/ARG in these environments are also reviewed. Culture-based single strain approaches and molecular techniques that include polymerase chain reaction (PCR), quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and metagenomics are techniques for quantifying ARB and ARGs in freshwater environments. The level of ARBs is extremely high in most of the river systems (up to 98% of the total detected bacteria), followed by lakes (up to 77% of the total detected bacteria), compared to dam, pond, and spring (<1%). Of most concern is the occurrence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae, methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin resistant Enterococcus (VRE), which cause highly epidemic infections. Dilution and natural degradation do not completely eradicate ARBs and ARGs in the freshwater environment. Even if the ARBs in freshwater are effectively inactivated by sunlight, their ARG-containing DNA can still be intact and capable of transferring resistance to non-resistant strains. Antibiotic resistance persists and is preserved in freshwater bodies polluted with high concentrations of antibiotics. Direct transmission of indigenous freshwater ARBs to humans as well as their transitory insertion in the microbiota can occur. These findings are disturbing especially for people that rely on freshwater resources for drinking, crop irrigation, and food in form of fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chika F Nnadozie
- Unilever Centre for Environmental Water Quality, Institute for Water Research, Rhodes University, PO Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa.
| | - Oghenekaro Nelson Odume
- Unilever Centre for Environmental Water Quality, Institute for Water Research, Rhodes University, PO Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa
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Ebomah KE, Adefisoye MA, Okoh AI. Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains Recovered from Selected Aquatic Resources in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, and Its Significance to Public Health. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15071506. [PMID: 30018212 PMCID: PMC6069279 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15071506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of pathogenic microorganisms, as well as the proliferation of antimicrobial resistance, pose a significant threat to public health. However, the magnitude of the impact of aquatic environs concerning the advent and propagation of resistance genes remains vague. Escherichia coli (E. coli) are widespread and encompass a variety of strains, ranging from non-pathogenic to highly pathogenic. This study reports on the incidence and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of E. coli isolates recovered from the Nahoon beach and its canal waters in South Africa. A total of 73 out of 107 (68.2%) Polymerase chain reaction confirmed E. coli isolates were found to be affirmative for at least one virulence factor. These comprised of enteropathogenic E. coli 11 (10.3%), enteroinvasive E. coli 14 (13.1%), and neonatal meningitis E. coli 48 (44.9%). The phenotypic antibiogram profiles of the confirmed isolates revealed that all 73 (100%) were resistant to ampicillin, whereas 67 (91.8%) of the pathotypes were resistant to amikacin, gentamicin, and ceftazidime. About 61 (83.6%) and 51 (69.9%) were resistant to tetracycline and ciprofloxacin, respectively, and about 21.9% (16) demonstrated multiple instances of antibiotic resistance, with 100% exhibiting resistance to eight antibiotics. The conclusion from our findings is that the Nahoon beach and its canal waters are reservoirs of potentially virulent and antibiotic-resistant E. coli strains, which thus constitute a potent public health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kingsley Ehi Ebomah
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa.
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa.
| | - Martins Ajibade Adefisoye
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa.
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa.
| | - Anthony Ifeanyi Okoh
- SAMRC Microbial Water Quality Monitoring Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa.
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Alice 5700, South Africa.
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Suhartono S, Savin MC, Gbur EE. Transmissible Plasmids and Integrons Shift Escherichia coli Population Toward Larger Multiple Drug Resistance Numbers. Microb Drug Resist 2018; 24:244-252. [DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2016.0329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Suhartono Suhartono
- Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh, Indonesia
| | - Mary C. Savin
- Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
| | - Edward E. Gbur
- Agricultural Statistics Laboratory, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas
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Elbehery AHA, Aziz RK, Siam R. Insertion sequences enrichment in extreme Red sea brine pool vent. Extremophiles 2016; 21:271-282. [PMID: 27915389 DOI: 10.1007/s00792-016-0900-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Mobile genetic elements are major agents of genome diversification and evolution. Limited studies addressed their characteristics, including abundance, and role in extreme habitats. One of the rare natural habitats exposed to multiple-extreme conditions, including high temperature, salinity and concentration of heavy metals, are the Red Sea brine pools. We assessed the abundance and distribution of different mobile genetic elements in four Red Sea brine pools including the world's largest known multiple-extreme deep-sea environment, the Red Sea Atlantis II Deep. We report a gradient in the abundance of mobile genetic elements, dramatically increasing in the harshest environment of the pool. Additionally, we identified a strong association between the abundance of insertion sequences and extreme conditions, being highest in the harshest and deepest layer of the Red Sea Atlantis II Deep. Our comparative analyses of mobile genetic elements in secluded, extreme and relatively non-extreme environments, suggest that insertion sequences predominantly contribute to polyextremophiles genome plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali H A Elbehery
- Graduate Program of Biotechnology, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo, 11835, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ramy K Aziz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, 11562, Egypt
| | - Rania Siam
- Graduate Program of Biotechnology, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo, 11835, Cairo, Egypt.
- Department of Biology, School of Sciences and Engineering, The American University in Cairo, SSE (Parcel 7), Second Floor, Office: Room 2194, AUC Avenue, New Cairo, 11835, Cairo, Egypt.
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Suhartono S, Savin M, Gbur EE. Genetic redundancy and persistence of plasmid-mediated trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole resistant effluent and stream water Escherichia coli. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 103:197-204. [PMID: 27455416 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistant bacteria may persist in effluent receiving surface water in the presence of low (sub-inhibitory) antibiotic concentrations if the bacteria possess multiple genes encoding resistance to the same antibiotic. This redundancy of antibiotic resistance genes may occur in plasmids harboring conjugation and mobilization (mob) and integrase (intI) genes. Plasmids extracted from 76 sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim resistant Escherichia coli originally isolated from effluent and an effluent-receiving stream were used as DNA template to identify sulfamethoxazole (sul) and trimethoprim (dfr) resistances genes plus detect the presence of intI and mob genes using PCR. Sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim resistance was plasmid-mediated with three sul (sul1, sul2 and sul3 genes) and four dfr genes (dfrA12, dfrA8, dfrA17, and dfrA1 gene) the most prevalently detected. Approximately half of the plasmids carried class 1 and/or 2 integron and, although unrelated, half were also transmissible. Sampling site in relationship to effluent input significantly affected the number of intI and mob but not the number of sul and dfr genes. In the presence of low (sub-inhibitory) sulfamethoxazole concentration, isolates persisted regardless of integron and mobilization gene designation, whereas in the presence of trimethoprim, the presence of both integron and mobilization genes made isolates less persistent than in the absence of both or the presence of a gene from either group individually. Regardless, isolates persisted in large concentrations throughout the experiment. Treated effluent containing antibiotic resistant bacteria may be an important source of integrase and mobilization genes into the stream environment. Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim resistant bacteria may have a high degree of genetic redundancy and diversity carrying resistance to each antibiotic, although the role of integrase and mobilization genes towards persistence is unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhartono Suhartono
- Cell and Molecular Biology, Dept. of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, University of Arkansas, 115 Plant Science Building, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA; Dept. of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh, 23236, Indonesia
| | - Mary Savin
- Cell and Molecular Biology, Dept. of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, University of Arkansas, 115 Plant Science Building, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA.
| | - Edward E Gbur
- Agricultural Statistics Laboratory, 101 Agricultural Annex, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 72701, USA
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Extraintestinal Pathogenic and Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli Contamination of 56 Public Restrooms in the Greater Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:4498-506. [PMID: 25911488 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00638-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
How extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli disseminate through the population is undefined. We studied public restrooms for contamination with E. coli and ExPEC in relation to source and extensively characterized the E. coli isolates. For this, we cultured 1,120 environmental samples from 56 public restrooms in 33 establishments (obtained from 10 cities in the greater Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN, metropolitan area in 2003) for E. coli and compared ecological data with culture results. Isolates underwent virulence genotyping, phylotyping, clonal typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and disk diffusion antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Overall, 168 samples (15% from 89% of restrooms) fluoresced, indicating presumptive E. coli: 25 samples (2.2% from 32% of restrooms) yielded E. coli isolates, and 10 samples (0.9% from 16% of restrooms) contained ExPEC. Restroom category and cleanliness level significantly predicted only fluorescence, gender predicted fluorescence and E. coli, and feces-like material and toilet-associated sites predicted all three endpoints. Of the 25 E. coli isolates, 7 (28%) were from phylogenetic group B2(virulence-associated), and 8 (32%) were ExPEC. ExPEC isolates more commonly represented group B2 (50% versus 18%) and had significantly higher virulence gene scores than non-ExPEC isolates. Six isolates (24%) exhibited ≥3-class antibiotic resistance, 10 (40%) represented classic human-associated sequence types, and one closely resembled reference human clinical isolates by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Thus, E. coli, ExPEC, and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli sporadically contaminate public restrooms, in ways corresponding with restroom characteristics and within-restroom sites. Such restroom-source E. coli strains likely reflect human fecal contamination, may pose a health threat, and may contribute to population-wide dissemination of such strains.
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