Safflower yellow improves insulin sensitivity in high-fat diet-induced obese mice by promoting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ2 expression in subcutaneous adipose tissue

Safflower Yellow Alleviates Cognitive Impairment in Mice by Modulating Cholinergic System Function, Oxidative Stress, and CREB/BDNF/TrkB Signaling Pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Carthamus tinctorius L. (Safflower) was believed to have multiple benefits, including antioxidant effects, enhanced learning and memory, and improving neuronal injury. Safflower Yellow(SY) are the main active ingredients of Safflower, displays strong pharmacological potential treatment of Alzheimer's disease(AD). However, its effect on memory impairments remains insufficiently investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aims to investigate the effects of SY on cognitive functions in memory impairments model and to explore the mechanism of its action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We utilized the Morris Water Maze, Step-Through Test, Step-Down Test to assess the potential of SY in ameliorating learning and memory dysfunction caused by SCOP, NaNO2 and ethanol in mice. Bioinformatic analysis and molecular biological approaches were used to study the related mechanisms of SY on anti-memory impairments.

RESULTS

The results of the Morris Water Test suggested that SY could shorten the escape latency and the time of the first crossing platform in the mice with memory acquisition and memory consolidation impairments, and increase the platform crossing times. The results of the Step-Though test and Step-Down test showed that the escape latency in the mice was prolonged and the number of errors was reduced after SY treatment. ELISA experiments indicated that SY decreased the AChE activities, increased the ChAT activities, and modulated oxidative stress markers (SOD, MDA, and GSH-PX) in scopolamine-induced mice. Western Blot and Nissl staining showed that SY could activated BDNF/TrkB/CREB signaling pathway and reduced neuronal damage.

CONCLUSION

The findings present that SY can restore the function of the cholinergic system, inhibit oxidative stress, regulate the expression of upstream and downstream proteins in the CREB/BDNF/TrkB pathway, and alleviate brain tissue damage to improve memory impairment in mice.

Safflower yellow and its main component hydroxysafflor yellow A alleviate hyperleptinemia in diet-induced obesity mice through a dual inhibition of the GIP-GIPR signaling axis

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is a gastrointestinal hormone secreted by K cells in the small intestine and is considered an obesity-promoting factor. In this study, we systematically investigated the anti-obesity effects of intragastric safflower yellow (SY)/hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) and the underlying mechanism for the first time. Our results showed that intragastric SY/HSYA, rather than an intraperitoneal injection, notably decreased serum GIP levels and GIP staining in the small intestine in diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. Moreover, intragastric SY/HSYA was also first found to significantly suppress GIP receptor (GIPR) signaling in both the hypothalamus and subcutaneous White adipose tissue. Our study is the first to show that intragastric SY/HSYA obviously reduced food intake and body weight gain in leptin sensitivity experiments and decreased serum leptin levels in DIO mice. Further experiments demonstrated that SY treatment also significantly reduced leptin levels, whereas the inhibitory effect of SY on leptin levels was reversed by activating GIPR in 3 T3-L1 adipocytes. In addition, intragastric SY/HSYA had already significantly reduced serum GIP levels and GIPR expression before the serum leptin levels were notably changed in high-fat-diet-fed mice. These findings suggested that intragastric SY/HSYA may alleviate diet-induced obesity in mice by ameliorating hyperleptinemia via dual inhibition of the GIP-GIPR axis.

Hydroxy-Safflower Yellow A Mitigates Vascular Remodeling in Rat Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Purpose

The underlying causes of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) often remain obscure. Addressing PAH with effective treatments presents a formidable challenge. Studies have shown that Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) has a potential role in PAH, While the mechanism underlies its protective role is still unclear. The study was conducted to investigate the potential mechanisms of the protective effects of HSYA.

Methods

Using databases such as PharmMapper and GeneCards, we identified active components of HSYA and associated PAH targets, pinpointed intersecting genes, and constructed a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. Core targets were singled out using Cytoscape for the development of a model illustrating drug-component-target-disease interactions. Intersection targets underwent analysis for Gene Ontology (GO) functions and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment. Selected components were then modeled for target interaction using Autodock and Pymol. In vivo validation in a monocrotaline-induced PAH (MCT-PAH) animal model was utilized to substantiate the predictions made by network pharmacology.

Results

We associated HSYA with 113 targets, and PAH with 1737 targets, identifying 34 mutual targets for treatment by HSYA. HSYA predominantly affects 9 core targets. Molecular docking unveiled hydrogen bond interactions between HSYA and several PAH-related proteins such as ANXA5, EGFR, SRC, PPARG, PGR, and ESR1.

Conclusion

Utilizing network pharmacology and molecular docking approaches, we investigated potential targets and relevant human disease pathways implicating HSYA in PAH therapy, such as the chemical carcinogenesis receptor activation pathway and the cancer pathway. Our findings were corroborated by the efficacious use of HSYA in an MCT-induced rat PAH model, confirming its therapeutic potential.

Intragastric Safflower Yellow Alleviates HFD Induced Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease in Mice through Regulating Gut Microbiota and Liver Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

The gut microbiota was reported to play a significant role in the progression of the metabolic associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD). Our recent study suggested that gastrointestinal tract and liver were important targets mediating the anti-obesity effects of intragastric safflower yellow (SY). Therefore, our present study aims to investigate the effect of intragastric SY on MAFLD and possible mechanism. DIO mice were treated with 125 mg/kg/d SY for 12 weeks by gavage. We found intragastric SY significantly slowed weight gain of body, reduced the food intake and liver weight, improved hepatic steatosis, liver function and glucose metabolism in DIO mice. The comparison between OGTT and IPGTT illustrated OGTT produced a better improvement of glucose tolerance after SY treatment. We also found intragastric SY significantly increased the energy expenditure and locomotor activity of DIO mice. SY obviously decreased the expression of lipogenesis-associated and ERS-related genes in liver of DIO mice and PA-induced MAFLD hepatocyte model. Gut microbiota analysis demonstrated intragastric SY apparently changed the diversity and composition of gut microbiota of DIO mice. Further function prediction analysis indicated that gut microbiotas in SY-treated mice was positively related with energy metabolism, lipid metabolism and endocrine system. Intragastric SY has a significant therapeutic effect on MAFLD, which is mediated partly by modulating gut microbiota and improving liver ERS.

Intragastric safflower yellow and its main component HSYA improve leptin sensitivity before body weight change in diet-induced obese mice

Our previous studies found that safflower yellow (SY) and its main component hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) could alleviate obesity and improve leptin resistance in high-fat diet (HFD) induced obese mice. Therefore, our present study aimed to investigate whether the above effect of SY/HSYA was a direct effect or follow-up effect of weight loss and whether leptin was essential for the anti-obesity effect of SY/HSYA or not. HFD-induced obese mice were treated with SY or HSYA for 4 weeks, while ob/ob mice were treated with SY for 10 weeks. Body weight, food intake, fat mass, and serum leptin levels were measured. The leptin sensitivity experiment was conducted in HFD-induced obese mice. The expressions of leptin and its signaling-related genes were detected by RT-qPCR and Western blot methods. SY/HSYA treatment had no effect on food intake, energy expenditure, body weight, fat mass, and serum leptin levels in HFD-induced obese mice. However, the leptin sensitivity experiment showed that the food intake decreased by 18.4% in the HFD-SY group and the body weight gain decreased by 104.6% in the HFD-HSYA group, respectively (both P < 0.05). Furthermore, the expressions of leptin and leptin signaling inhibitory regulators were significantly decreased, while the phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (p-STAT3) were notably increased in WAT of HFD-induced obese mice, fully differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes after SY/HSYA intervention (all P < 0.05). Interestingly, SY treatment was ineffective on body weight, fat mass, and glucose metabolism in leptin-deficient ob/ob mice. SY/HSYA administration could firstly improve peripheral leptin resistance in adipose tissue of HFD-induced obese mice before their body weight was significantly changed, and leptin was essential for the anti-obesity effect of SY.

The Repression of the HMGB1-TLR4-NF-κB Signaling Pathway by Safflower Yellow May Improve Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) often results in abnormal sensory and motor functions. Current interventions for SCI in the clinical setting are not effective partly due to the complexity concerning its pathophysiological mechanism. In the wake of SCI, considerable inflammatory cells assemble around the injured area that induces a series of inflammatory reactions and aggravates tissue lesions, thereby affecting the recovery of the damaged nerve tissue. Therefore, the inhibition of inflammatory responses can improve the repair of the injured spinal cord tissue. Safflower Yellow (SY) is the main active ingredient of Carthamus tinctorius. SY has anti-inflammatory effect, as it can inhibit IκBα phosphorylation to impede the NF-κB signaling pathway and p53 nuclear translocation. Besides, SY can limit the release of pro-inflammatory factors, which in turn may alleviate secondary SCI and prevent further complications. In this report, we analyze the pathophysiological mechanism of SCI, the role of inflammatory responses, and how SY interferes with the HMGB1-TLR-4-NF-κB signaling pathway to attenuate inflammatory responses in SCI.

Pharmacological Actions, Molecular Mechanisms, Pharmacokinetic Progressions, and Clinical Applications of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A in Antidiabetic Research

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), a nutraceutical compound derived from safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), has been shown as an effective therapeutic agent in cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes. Our previous study showed that the effect of HSYA on high-glucose-induced podocyte injury is related to its anti-inflammatory activities via macrophage polarization. Based on the information provided on PubMed, Scopus and Wanfang database, we currently aim to provide an updated overview of the role of HSYA in antidiabetic research from the following points: pharmacological actions, molecular mechanisms, pharmacokinetic progressions, and clinical applications. The pharmacokinetic research of HSYA has laid foundations for the clinical applications of HSYA injection in diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, and diabetic neuropathy. The application of HSYA as an antidiabetic oral medicament has been investigated based on its recent oral delivery system research. In vivo and in vitro pharmacological research indicated that the antidiabetic activities of HSYA were based mainly on its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms via JNK/c-jun pathway, NOX4 pathway, and macrophage differentiation. Further anti-inflammatory exploration related to NF-κB signaling, MAPK pathway, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway might deserve attention in the future. The anti-inflammatory activities of HSYA related to diabetes and diabetic complications will be a highlight in our following research.

Bu-Shen-Huo-Xue Decoction Ameliorates Diabetic Nephropathy by Inhibiting Rac1/PAK1/p38MAPK Signaling Pathway in High-Fat Diet/Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Mice

Diabetic nephropathy (DN), a leading cause of end-stage renal disease, is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide and the development of new drugs to treat DN is urgently required. Bu-Shen-Huo-Xue (BSHX) decoction is a traditional Chinese herbal formula, made according to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory, and has been used clinically to treat DN. In the present study, we established a high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetic mouse model and treated the mice with BSHX decoction to verify its therapeutic effects in vivo. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) was applied to analyze the chemical composition and active compounds of BSHX decoction. Markers of podocyte epithelial-mesenchymal transition and the Rac1/PAK1/p38MAPK signaling pathway were evaluated to investigate the mechanism underlying function of BSHX decoction. BSHX decoction effectively alleviated diabetic symptoms, according to analysis of the renal function indicators, serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, serum uric acid, and urinary albumin excretion rate, as well as renal histopathology and ultrastructural pathology of DN mice. We identified 67 compounds, including 20 likely active compounds, in BSHX decoction. The podocyte markers, nephrin and podocin, were down-regulated, while the mesenchymal markers, α-SMA and FSP-1, were up-regulated in DN mouse kidney; however, the changes in these markers were reversed on treatment with BSHX decoction. GTP-Rac1 was markedly overexpressed in DN mice and its levels were significantly decreased in response to BSHX decoction. Similarly, levels of p-PAK1 and p-p38MAPK which indicate Rac1 activation, were reduced on treatment with BSHX decoction. Together, our data demonstrated that BSHX decoction ameliorated renal function and podocyte epithelial-mesenchymal transition via inhibiting Rac1/PAK1/p38MAPK signaling pathway in high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Further, we generated a quality control standard and numerous potential active compounds from BSHX decoction for DN.