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Weir JT, Aleixo A, Pulido-Santacruz P. Amazonian rivers are leaky barriers to gene flow in forest understory birds. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20240795. [PMID: 39226930 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2024.0795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Ever since Alfred Russel Wallace's nineteenth-century observation that related terrestrial species are often separated on opposing riverbanks, major Amazonian rivers have been recognized as key drivers of speciation. However, rivers are dynamic entities whose widths and courses may vary through time. It thus remains unknown how effective rivers are at reducing gene flow and promoting speciation over long timescales. We fit demographic models to genomic sequences to reconstruct the history of gene flow in three pairs of avian taxa fully separated by different Amazonian rivers, and whose geographic ranges do not make contact in headwater regions where rivers may cease to be barriers. Models with gene flow were best fit but still supported an initial period without any gene flow, which ranged from 187 000 to over 959 000 years, suggesting that rivers are capable of initiating speciation through long stretches of allopatric divergence. Allopatry was followed by either bursts or prolonged episodes of gene flow that retarded genomic differentiation but did not fully homogenize populations. Our results support Amazonian rivers as key barriers that promoted speciation and the build-up of species richness, but they also suggest that river barriers are often leaky, with genomic divergence accumulating slowly owing to episodes of substantial gene flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason T Weir
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto , Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B2, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough , Toronto, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada
- Department of Ornithology, Royal Ontario Museum , Toronto, Ontario M5S 2C6, Canada
| | - Alexandre Aleixo
- Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade e Evolução, Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi , Belém 66040-170, Brazil
- Vale Technology Institute-Sustainable Development (ITV-DS) , Belém 66055-090, Brazil
| | - Paola Pulido-Santacruz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto , Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B2, Canada
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Universidad del Rosario , Bogotá 111221, Colombia
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Le Clercq LS, Kotzé A, Grobler JP, Dalton DL. Biological clocks as age estimation markers in animals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1972-2011. [PMID: 37356823 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Various biological attributes associated with individual fitness in animals change predictably over the lifespan of an organism. Therefore, the study of animal ecology and the work of conservationists frequently relies upon the ability to assign animals to functionally relevant age classes to model population fitness. Several approaches have been applied to determining individual age and, while these methods have proved useful, they are not without limitations and often lack standardisation or are only applicable to specific species. For these reasons, scientists have explored the potential use of biological clocks towards creating a universal age-determination method. Two biological clocks, tooth layer annulation and otolith layering have found universal appeal. Both methods are highly invasive and most appropriate for post-mortem age-at-death estimation. More recently, attributes of cellular ageing previously explored in humans have been adapted to studying ageing in animals for the use of less-invasive molecular methods for determining age. Here, we review two such methods, assessment of methylation and telomere length, describing (i) what they are, (ii) how they change with age, and providing (iii) a summary and meta-analysis of studies that have explored their utility in animal age determination. We found that both attributes have been studied across multiple vertebrate classes, however, telomere studies were used before methylation studies and telomere length has been modelled in nearly twice as many studies. Telomere length studies included in the review often related changes to stress responses and illustrated that telomere length is sensitive to environmental and social stressors and, in the absence of repair mechanisms such as telomerase or alternative lengthening modes, lacks the ability to recover. Methylation studies, however, while also detecting sensitivity to stressors and toxins, illustrated the ability to recover from such stresses after a period of accelerated ageing, likely due to constitutive expression or reactivation of repair enzymes such as DNA methyl transferases. We also found that both studied attributes have parentally heritable features, but the mode of inheritance differs among taxa and may relate to heterogamy. Our meta-analysis included more than 40 species in common for methylation and telomere length, although both analyses included at least 60 age-estimation models. We found that methylation outperforms telomere length in terms of predictive power evidenced from effect sizes (more than double that observed for telomeres) and smaller prediction intervals. Both methods produced age correlation models using similar sample sizes and were able to classify individuals into young, middle, or old age classes with high accuracy. Our review and meta-analysis illustrate that both methods are well suited to studying age in animals and do not suffer significantly from variation due to differences in the lifespan of the species, genome size, karyotype, or tissue type but rather that quantitative method, patterns of inheritance, and environmental factors should be the main considerations. Thus, provided that complex factors affecting the measured trait can be accounted for, both methylation and telomere length are promising targets to develop as biomarkers for age determination in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis-Stéphane Le Clercq
- South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Antoinette Kotzé
- South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - J Paul Grobler
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Desiré Lee Dalton
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, UK
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Le Clercq LS, Bazzi G, Cecere JG, Gianfranceschi L, Grobler JP, Kotzé A, Rubolini D, Liedvogel M, Dalton DL. Time trees and clock genes: a systematic review and comparative analysis of contemporary avian migration genetics. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1051-1080. [PMID: 36879518 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
Timing is a crucial aspect for survival and reproduction in seasonal environments leading to carefully scheduled annual programs of migration in many species. But what are the exact mechanisms through which birds (class: Aves) can keep track of time, anticipate seasonal changes, and adapt their behaviour? One proposed mechanism regulating annual behaviour is the circadian clock, controlled by a highly conserved set of genes, collectively called 'clock genes' which are well established in controlling the daily rhythmicity of physiology and behaviour. Due to diverse migration patterns observed within and among species, in a seemingly endogenously programmed manner, the field of migration genetics has sought and tested several candidate genes within the clock circuitry that may underlie the observed differences in breeding and migration behaviour. Among others, length polymorphisms within genes such as Clock and Adcyap1 have been hypothesised to play a putative role, although association and fitness studies in various species have yielded mixed results. To contextualise the existing body of data, here we conducted a systematic review of all published studies relating polymorphisms in clock genes to seasonality in a phylogenetically and taxonomically informed manner. This was complemented by a standardised comparative re-analysis of candidate gene polymorphisms of 76 bird species, of which 58 are migrants and 18 are residents, along with population genetics analyses for 40 species with available allele data. We tested genetic diversity estimates, used Mantel tests for spatial genetic analyses, and evaluated relationships between candidate gene allele length and population averages for geographic range (breeding- and non-breeding latitude), migration distance, timing of migration, taxonomic relationships, and divergence times. Our combined analysis provided evidence (i) of a putative association between Clock gene variation and autumn migration as well as a putative association between Adcyap1 gene variation and spring migration in migratory species; (ii) that these candidate genes are not diagnostic markers to distinguish migratory from sedentary birds; and (iii) of correlated variability in both genes with divergence time, potentially reflecting ancestrally inherited genotypes rather than contemporary changes driven by selection. These findings highlight a tentative association between these candidate genes and migration attributes as well as genetic constraints on evolutionary adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis-Stéphane Le Clercq
- South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Gaia Bazzi
- Area Avifauna Migratrice, Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, via Ca' Fornacetta 9, Ozzano Emilia (BO), I-40064, Italy
| | - Jacopo G Cecere
- Area Avifauna Migratrice, Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, via Ca' Fornacetta 9, Ozzano Emilia (BO), I-40064, Italy
| | - Luca Gianfranceschi
- Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 26, Milan, I-20133, Italy
| | - Johannes Paul Grobler
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Antoinette Kotzé
- South African National Biodiversity Institute, P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Diego Rubolini
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Politiche Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 26, Milan, I-20133, Italy
- Istituto di Ricerca sulle Acque, IRSA-CNR, Via del Mulino 19, Brugherio (MB), I-20861, Italy
| | - Miriam Liedvogel
- Max Planck Research Group Behavioral Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, 24306, Germany
- Institute of Avian Research, An der Vogelwarte 21, Wilhelmshaven, 26386, Germany
| | - Desiré Lee Dalton
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, UK
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4
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Le Clercq LS, Kotzé A, Grobler JP, Dalton DL. PAReTT: A Python Package for the Automated Retrieval and Management of Divergence Time Data from the TimeTree Resource for Downstream Analyses. J Mol Evol 2023:10.1007/s00239-023-10106-3. [PMID: 37079046 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-023-10106-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023]
Abstract
Evolutionary processes happen gradually over time and are, thus, considered time dependent. In addition, several evolutionary processes are either adaptations to local habitats or changing habitats, otherwise restricted thereby. Since evolutionary processes driving speciation take place within the landscape of environmental and temporal bounds, several published studies have aimed at providing accurate, fossil-calibrated, estimates of the divergence times of both extant and extinct species. Correct calibration is critical towards attributing evolutionary adaptations and speciation both to the time and paleogeography that contributed to it. Data from more than 4000 studies and nearly 1,50,000 species are available from a central TimeTree resource and provide opportunities of retrieving divergence times, evolutionary timelines, and time trees in various formats for most vertebrates. These data greatly enhance the ability of researchers to investigate evolution. However, there is limited functionality when studying lists of species that require batch retrieval. To overcome this, a PYTHON package termed Python-Automated Retrieval of TimeTree data (PAReTT) was created to facilitate a biologist-friendly interaction with the TimeTree resource. Here, we illustrate the use of the package through three examples that includes the use of timeline data, time tree data, and divergence time data. Furthermore, PAReTT was previously used in a meta-analysis of candidate genes to illustrate the relationship between divergence times and candidate genes of migration. The PAReTT package is available for download from GitHub or as a pre-compiled Windows executable, with extensive documentation on the package available on GitHub wiki pages regarding dependencies, installation, and implementation of the various functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis-Stéphane Le Clercq
- South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa.
| | - Antoinette Kotzé
- South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - J Paul Grobler
- Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Desiré Lee Dalton
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BA, UK
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5
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Sil M, Roy A, Bhat HNP, Palden T, Karanth KP, Aravind NA. Role of paleoclimatic and paleohydrological processes in lineage divergence in freshwater organisms: A snippet from lentic genus Pila. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2023; 181:107723. [PMID: 36720420 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The Indian subcontinent is extremely diverse in terms of its flora and fauna. However, only a handful of studies have aimed to understand the diversity of freshwater invertebrates using multiple lines of evidence in recent times. Here we aimed to estimate the cryptic diversity of two widespread freshwater snail species within the genus Pila (Röding, 1798) and uncover the processes behind lineage diversification in these species. We sequenced mitochondrial and nuclear markers from a comprehensive sampling of specimens from different river basins in India. We implemented an integrative taxonomy approach to delimit the lineages in these groups, employing phylogenetic, geometric morphometric and niche modelling-based methods. Then, we investigated the drivers of lineage divergence in these species using population genetic tools in conjunction with divergence time estimation. We found that both species consist of several genetically and ecologically distinct lineages. The genetic data showed that several of these lineages are restricted to a single or a few river basins. The divergence time estimation analyses indicated that the time frame of divergence within the species coincided with paleohydrological and paleoclimatic events in the Miocene. The diversification was primarily driven by allopatric isolation into different river basins. To conclude, the study sheds light on the complex interaction between the habitat preference of the species and the environment in shaping the diversification patterns in this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maitreya Sil
- Suri Sehgal Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur PO, Bangalore 560064, India; National Institute for Science Education and Research, Bhubaneswar 752050, India.
| | - Abhisikta Roy
- Suri Sehgal Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur PO, Bangalore 560064, India
| | - H N Poorna Bhat
- Suri Sehgal Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur PO, Bangalore 560064, India
| | - Tenzin Palden
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Malleshwaram, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - K Praveen Karanth
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Malleshwaram, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - N A Aravind
- Suri Sehgal Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur PO, Bangalore 560064, India; Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya University, Derlakatte, Mangalore, India.
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6
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Scherz MD, Schmidt R, Brown JL, Glos J, Lattenkamp EZ, Rakotomalala Z, Rakotoarison A, Rakotonindrina RT, Randriamalala O, Raselimanana AP, Rasolonjatovo SM, Ratsoavina FM, Razafindraibe JH, Glaw F, Vences M. Repeated divergence of amphibians and reptiles across an elevational gradient in northern Madagascar. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9914. [PMID: 36937068 PMCID: PMC10019947 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
How environmental factors shape patterns of biotic diversity in tropical ecosystems is an active field of research, but studies examining the possibility of ecological speciation in terrestrial tropical ecosystems are scarce. We use the isolated rainforest herpetofauna on the Montagne d'Ambre (Amber Mountain) massif in northern Madagascar as a model to explore elevational divergence at the level of populations and communities. Based on intensive sampling and DNA barcoding of amphibians and reptiles along a transect ranging from ca. 470-1470 m above sea level (a.s.l.), we assessed a main peak in species richness at an elevation of ca. 1000 m a.s.l. with 41 species. The proportion of local endemics was highest (about 1/3) at elevations >1100 m a.s.l. Two species of chameleons (Brookesia tuberculata, Calumma linotum) and two species of frogs (Mantidactylus bellyi, M. ambony) studied in depth by newly developed microsatellite markers showed genetic divergence up the slope of the mountain, some quite strong, others very weak, but in each case with genetic breaks between 1100 and 1270 m a.s.l. Genetic clusters were found in transect sections significantly differing in bioclimate and herpetological community composition. A decrease in body size was detected in several species with increasing elevation. The studied rainforest amphibians and reptiles show concordant population genetic differentiation across elevation along with morphological and niche differentiation. Whether this parapatric or microallopatric differentiation will suffice for the completion of speciation is, however, unclear, and available phylogeographic evidence rather suggests that a complex interplay between ecological and allopatric divergence processes is involved in generating the extraordinary species diversity of Madagascar's biota. Our study reveals concordant patterns of diversification among main elevational bands, but suggests that these adaptational processes are only part of the complex of processes leading to species formation, among which geographical isolation is probably also important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D. Scherz
- Zoologisches InstitutTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
- Natural History Museum of DenmarkUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagen ØDenmark
| | - Robin Schmidt
- Zoologisches InstitutTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
| | - Jason L. Brown
- School of Biological SciencesSouthern Illinois UniversityCarbondaleIllinoisUSA
| | - Julian Glos
- Institute of Cell and Systems BiologyUniversität HamburgHamburgGermany
| | - Ella Z. Lattenkamp
- Neurogenetics of Vocal Communication GroupMax Planck Institute for PsycholinguisticsNijmegenThe Netherlands
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Biology IILudwig Maximilians University MunichMartinsriedGermany
| | | | - Andolalao Rakotoarison
- Mention Zoologie et Biodiversité AnimaleUniversité d'AntananarivoAntananarivoMadagascar
- School for International TrainingAntananarivoMadagascar
| | | | - Onja Randriamalala
- Mention Zoologie et Biodiversité AnimaleUniversité d'AntananarivoAntananarivoMadagascar
| | - Achille P. Raselimanana
- Mention Zoologie et Biodiversité AnimaleUniversité d'AntananarivoAntananarivoMadagascar
- Association VahatraAntananarivoMadagascar
| | - Safidy M. Rasolonjatovo
- Mention Zoologie et Biodiversité AnimaleUniversité d'AntananarivoAntananarivoMadagascar
- Association VahatraAntananarivoMadagascar
| | | | - Jary H. Razafindraibe
- Mention Zoologie et Biodiversité AnimaleUniversité d'AntananarivoAntananarivoMadagascar
| | - Frank Glaw
- Zoologische Staatssammlung München (ZSM‐SNSB)MunichGermany
| | - Miguel Vences
- Zoologisches InstitutTechnische Universität BraunschweigBraunschweigGermany
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Dai C, Feng P. Multiple concordant cytonuclear divergences and potential hybrid speciation within a species complex in Asia. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2023; 180:107709. [PMID: 36657627 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2023.107709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Various environmental factors impact the distribution, population structure, demography and evolutionary trajectory of a bird species, leading to genetic and morphological divergences between populations across its distribution. The Paradoxornis webbianus species complex is found throughout much of East Asia, where its geographically distinct populations exhibit dramatic morphological variation. This has resulted in a hotly debated taxonomy. This study intended to identify genetic divergence patterns and their underlying contributing factors for this species complex. We collected 243 birds, whose data was combined with those available in GenBank to perform phylogeographic analyses using one mitochondrial and six nuclear loci. Six mitochondrial clades were observed in the species complex, while individual-based Bayesian clustering using nuclear markers showed multiple congruent breaks. Overall, the six molecular lineages could be recognized as independent species under the lineage species concept in view of genetic divergence, clade-specific morphological changes and distribution: P. webbianus, P. w. bulomachus, P. alphonsianus, P. a. ganluoensis, P. brunneus brunneus and P. b. ricketti. The estimated divergence times range from 0.46 to 3.36 million years ago, suggesting it was likely impacted by paleoclimatic changes. Interestingly, P. alphonsianus carries two divergent mitochondrial lineages shared with P. webbianus and P. a. ganluoensis, respectively, and analyses based on nuclear loci found a similar pattern. We discussed the various hypotheses for this pattern and argued that P. alphonsianus was likely the result of hybridization between P. webbianus and P. a. ganluoensis. Further data on genome, transcriptome and breeding ecology are needed to address the hypothesis of hybrid speciation and its underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanyin Dai
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin 541006, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541006, China.
| | - Ping Feng
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection (Guangxi Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guilin 541006, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541006, China
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8
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Herman RW, Winger BM, Dittmann DL, Harvey MG. Fine-scale population genetic structure and barriers to gene flow in a widespread seabird ( Ardenna pacifica). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Pelagic seabirds are highly mobile, reducing opportunities for population isolation that might promote differentiation and speciation. At the same time, many seabirds are philopatric, and their tendency to return to their natal islands to breed might reduce gene flow sufficiently to permit local adaptation and differentiation. To test the net impact of these competing processes, estimates of differentiation and gene flow based on comprehensive geographical sampling are required. We leveraged diverse source material to achieve comprehensive geographical sampling in a widespread seabird, the Wedge-tailed Shearwater (Ardenna pacifica). Using data from sequence capture and high-throughput sequencing of 2402 loci containing 20 780 single nucleotide polymorphisms, we tested for population differentiation and gene flow among breeding areas. We found little evidence of deep divergences within A. pacifica but were able to resolve fine-scale differentiation across island groups. This differentiation was sufficient to assign individuals sampled away from breeding areas to their likely source populations. Estimated effective migration surfaces revealed reduced migration between the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean, presumably owing to land barriers, and across the equatorial Pacific Ocean, perhaps associated with differences in breeding schedule. Our results reveal that, despite their mobility, pelagic seabirds can exhibit fine-scale population differentiation and reduced gene flow among ocean basins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael W Herman
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University , Stony Brook, NY , USA
| | - Benjamin M Winger
- Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI , USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Donna L Dittmann
- Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Michael G Harvey
- Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI , USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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9
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Euclide PT, Jasonowicz A, Sitar S, Fischer G, Goetz FW. Further evidence from common garden rearing experiments of heritable traits separating lean and siscowet lake charr (Salvelinus namaycush) ecotypes. Mol Ecol 2022; 31:3432-3450. [PMID: 35510796 PMCID: PMC9323484 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Genetic evidence of selection for complex and polygenically regulated phenotypes can easily become masked by neutral population genetic structure and phenotypic plasticity. Without direct evidence of genotype‐phenotype associations it can be difficult to conclude to what degree a phenotype is heritable or a product of environment. Common garden laboratory studies control for environmental stochasticity and help to determine the mechanism that regulate traits. Here we assess lipid content, growth, weight, and length variation in full and hybrid F1 crosses of deep and shallow water sympatric lake charr ecotypes reared for nine years in a common garden experiment. Redundancy analysis (RDA) and quantitative‐trait‐loci (QTL) genomic scans are used to identify associations between genotypes at 19,714 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) aligned to the lake charr genome and individual phenotypes to determine the role that genetic inheritance plays in ecotype phenotypic diversity. Lipid content, growth, length, and weight differed significantly among lake charr crosses throughout the experiment suggesting that pedigree plays a large roll in lake charr development. Polygenic scores of 15 SNPs putatively associated with lipid content and/or condition factor indicated that ecotype distinguishing traits are polygenically regulated and additive. A QTL identified on chromosome 38 contained >200 genes, some of which were associated with lipid metabolism and growth, demonstrating the complex nature of ecotype diversity. The results of our common garden study further indicate that lake charr ecotypes observed in nature are predetermined at birth and that ecotypes differ fundamentally in lipid metabolism and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- P T Euclide
- Purdue University, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - A Jasonowicz
- The International Halibut Commission, 2320 West Commodore Way, Suite 300, Seattle, WA, 98199-1287, USA
| | - S Sitar
- Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Marquette Fisheries Research Station, 484 Cherry Creek Rd., Marquette, MI, 49855, USA
| | - G Fischer
- University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Northern Aquaculture Demonstration Facility, 36445 State Hwy 13, Bayfield, WI, 54814, USA
| | - F W Goetz
- University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, School of Freshwater Sciences, 600 East Greenfield Ave., Milwaukee, WI, 53204, USA
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10
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Marcondes RS. Celebrating the great avian evolutionary tradition: Review of how birds evolve, by D. J. Futuyma, Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press. Evolution 2022; 76:1366-1369. [PMID: 37139913 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael S. Marcondes
- Museum of Natural Science and Department of Biological Sciences Louisiana State University Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
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11
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Population diversification in the frog Mantidactylus bellyi on an isolated massif in northern Madagascar based on genetic, morphological, bioacoustic and ecological evidence. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263764. [PMID: 35358210 PMCID: PMC8970393 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the processes that give rise to new species, changes first occur at the population level. But with the continuous nature of the divergence process, change in biological properties delimiting the shift from “individuals of divergent populations” towards “individuals of distinct species”, as well as abiotic factors driving the change, remain largely ambivalent. Here we study diversification processes at the population level in a semi-aquatic frog, Mantidactylus (Brygoomantis) bellyi, across the diverse vegetation types of Montagne d’Ambre National Park (MANP), Madagascar. Genetic diversity was assessed with seven newly developed microsatellite markers as well as mitochondrial DNA sequences and concordance with patterns of ecological, morphological, and bioacoustic divergence evaluated. We found M. bellyi lacking mitochondrial differentiation within MANP, while microsatellite datasets partitioned them into three highly differentiated, geographically separated subpopulations (with indications for up to five subpopulations). The molecular grouping–primarily clustering individuals by geographic proximity–was coincident with differences in mean depth and width of waters, suggesting a possible role of fluvial characteristics in genetic exchange in this stream-breeding species. Genetic clustering not consistent with differences in call properties, except for dominant call frequencies under the two-subpopulations model. Morphological divergence was mostly consistent with the genetic clustering; subpopulations strongly differed by their snout-vent length, with individuals from high-elevation subpopulations smaller than those from populations below 1000 m above sea level. These results exemplify how mountains and environmental conditions might primarily shape genetic and morphological divergence in frog populations, without strongly affecting their calls.
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12
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The formation of avian montane diversity across barriers and along elevational gradients. Nat Commun 2022; 13:268. [PMID: 35022441 PMCID: PMC8755808 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27858-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Tropical mountains harbor exceptional concentrations of Earth's biodiversity. In topographically complex landscapes, montane species typically inhabit multiple mountainous regions, but are absent in intervening lowland environments. Here we report a comparative analysis of genome-wide DNA polymorphism data for population pairs from eighteen Indo-Pacific bird species from the Moluccan islands of Buru and Seram and from across the island of New Guinea. We test how barrier strength and relative elevational distribution predict population differentiation, rates of historical gene flow, and changes in effective population sizes through time. We find population differentiation to be consistently and positively correlated with barrier strength and a species' altitudinal floor. Additionally, we find that Pleistocene climate oscillations have had a dramatic influence on the demographics of all species but were most pronounced in regions of smaller geographic area. Surprisingly, even the most divergent taxon pairs at the highest elevations experience gene flow across barriers, implying that dispersal between montane regions is important for the formation of montane assemblages.
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13
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Cumer T, Machado AP, Dumont G, Bontzorlos V, Ceccherelli R, Charter M, Dichmann K, Kassinis N, Lourenço R, Manzia F, Martens HD, Prévost L, Rakovic M, Roque I, Siverio F, Roulin A, Goudet J. Landscape and climatic variations shaped secondary contacts amid barn owls of the Western Palearctic. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 39:6454100. [PMID: 34893883 PMCID: PMC8789042 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msab343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The combined actions of climatic variations and landscape barriers shape the history of natural populations. When organisms follow their shifting niches, obstacles in the landscape can lead to the splitting of populations, on which evolution will then act independently. When two such populations are reunited, secondary contact occurs in a broad range of admixture patterns, from narrow hybrid zones to the complete dissolution of lineages. A previous study suggested that barn owls colonized the Western Palearctic after the last glaciation in a ring-like fashion around the Mediterranean Sea, and conjectured an admixture zone in the Balkans. Here, we take advantage of whole-genome sequences of 94 individuals across the Western Palearctic to reveal the complex history of the species in the region using observational and modeling approaches. Even though our results confirm that two distinct lineages colonized the region, one in Europe and one in the Levant, they suggest that it predates the last glaciation and identify a secondary contact zone between the two in Anatolia. We also show that barn owls recolonized Europe after the glaciation from two distinct glacial refugia: a previously identified western one in Iberia and a new eastern one in Italy. Both glacial lineages now communicate via eastern Europe, in a wide and permeable contact zone. This complex history of populations enlightens the taxonomy of Tyto alba in the region, highlights the key role played by mountain ranges and large water bodies as barriers and illustrates the power of population genomics in uncovering intricate demographic patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan Cumer
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ana Paula Machado
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Guillaume Dumont
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vasileios Bontzorlos
- Green Fund, Kifisia, Athens, Greece.,"TYTO" - Organization for the Management and Conservation of Biodiversity in Agricultural Ecosystems, Larisa, Greece
| | | | - Motti Charter
- Shamir Research Institute, University of Haifa, Katzrin, Israel.,Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | | | | | - Rui Lourenço
- MED Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Laboratory of Ornithology, IIFA, University of Évora, Évora, Portugal
| | | | | | - Laure Prévost
- Association C.H.E.N.E, Centre d'Hébergement et d'Etude sur la Nature et l'Environnement, Allouville-Bellefosse, 76190, France
| | - Marko Rakovic
- Natural History Museum of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Inês Roque
- MED Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Laboratory of Ornithology, IIFA, University of Évora, Évora, Portugal
| | - Felipe Siverio
- Canary Islands' Ornithology and Natural History Group (GOHNIC), 38480 Buenavista del Norte, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Alexandre Roulin
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jérôme Goudet
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Bravo GA, Schmitt CJ, Edwards SV. What Have We Learned from the First 500 Avian Genomes? ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY, EVOLUTION, AND SYSTEMATICS 2021. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012121-085928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The increased capacity of DNA sequencing has significantly advanced our understanding of the phylogeny of birds and the proximate and ultimate mechanisms molding their genomic diversity. In less than a decade, the number of available avian reference genomes has increased to over 500—approximately 5% of bird diversity—placing birds in a privileged position to advance the fields of phylogenomics and comparative, functional, and population genomics. Whole-genome sequence data, as well as indels and rare genomic changes, are further resolving the avian tree of life. The accumulation of bird genomes, increasingly with long-read sequence data, greatly improves the resolution of genomic features such as germline-restricted chromosomes and the W chromosome, and is facilitating the comparative integration of genotypes and phenotypes. Community-based initiatives such as the Bird 10,000 Genomes Project and Vertebrate Genome Project are playing a fundamental role in amplifying and coalescing a vibrant international program in avian comparative genomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo A. Bravo
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA;, ,
| | - C. Jonathan Schmitt
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA;, ,
| | - Scott V. Edwards
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA;, ,
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Linck EB, Freeman BG, Cadena CD, Ghalambor CK. Evolutionary conservatism will limit responses to climate change in the tropics. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20210363. [PMID: 34610253 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapid species turnover in tropical mountains has fascinated biologists for centuries. A popular explanation for this heightened beta diversity is that climatic stability at low latitudes promotes the evolution of narrow thermal tolerance ranges, leading to local adaptation, evolutionary divergence and parapatric speciation along elevational gradients. However, an emerging consensus from research spanning phylogenetics, biogeography and behavioural ecology is that this process rarely, if ever, occurs. Instead, closely related species typically occupy a similar elevational niche, while species with divergent elevational niches tend to be more distantly related. These results suggest populations have responded to past environmental change not by adapting and diverging in place, but instead by shifting their distributions to tightly track climate over time. We argue that tropical species are likely to respond similarly to ongoing and future climate warming, an inference supported by evidence from recent range shifts. In the absence of widespread in situ adaptation to new climate regimes by tropical taxa, conservation planning should prioritize protecting large swaths of habitat to facilitate movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan B Linck
- Department of Biology and Museum of Southwestern Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Benjamin G Freeman
- Beatty Biodiversity Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - C Daniel Cadena
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia
| | - Cameron K Ghalambor
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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16
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E Luzuriaga-Aveiga V, Ugarte M, Weir JT. Distinguishing genomic homogenization from parapatric speciation in an elevationally replacing pair of Ramphocelus tanagers. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:5517-5529. [PMID: 34403554 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Geographically connected species pairs with weakly differentiated genomes could either represent cases of genomic homogenization in progress or of incipient parapatric speciation. Discriminating between these processes is difficult because intermediate stages of either may produce weakly differentiated genomes that diverge at few locations. We used coalescent modelling applied to a genome-wide sample of SNPs to discriminate between speciation with gene flow and genomic homogenization in two phenotypically distinct but genomically weakly diverged species of elevationally replacing Ramphocelus tanagers, forming a hybrid zone in the Andean foothills. We found overwhelming support for a model of genomic homogenization following secondary contact. Simulating under this model suggested that our species pair was differentiated (FST = 0.30) at secondary contact but that most of the genome has rapidly homogenized during 254 Ky of high gene flow towards the present (FST = 0.02). Despite extensive genome-wide homogenization, plumage remains distinctive with a narrower than expected geographic cline width, indicating divergent selection on colour. We found two SNPs significantly associated with plumage colour, which retain moderately high FST . We conclude that the majority of the genome has fused, but that divergent selection on select loci probably maintains the geographically structured colour differences between these incipient species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa E Luzuriaga-Aveiga
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mauricio Ugarte
- Área de Ornitología, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Museo de Historia Natural Arequipa, Peru
| | - Jason T Weir
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Ornithology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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17
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Freeman BG, Pennell MW. The latitudinal taxonomy gradient. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:778-786. [PMID: 34074540 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Emerging large-scale datasets coupled with statistical advances have provided new insights into the processes that generate the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG). But many of these studies run into an old, if often underappreciated, problem: The interpretation of the data critically depends on the consistent application of criteria to define what constitutes a species. This is particularly pernicious for the LDG because good species have been easier to recognize in temperate than in tropical regions. We provide evidence that this latitudinal taxonomy gradient exists, discuss how this potentially impacts inferences about latitudinal variation in ecoevolutionary processes such as population differentiation and speciation, and provide a roadmap for how to mitigate taxonomic biases in the study of biodiversity patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin G Freeman
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T1Z4; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
| | - Matthew W Pennell
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T1Z4; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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18
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Camacho-Sanchez M, Leonard JA. Mitogenomes Reveal Multiple Colonization of Mountains by Rattus in Sundaland. J Hered 2021; 111:392-404. [PMID: 32485737 PMCID: PMC7423070 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esaa014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Tropical mountains are cradles of biodiversity and endemism. Sundaland, tropical Southeast Asia, hosts 3 species of Rattus endemic to elevations above 2000 m with an apparent convergence in external morphology: Rattus korinchi and R. hoogerwerfi from Sumatra, and R. baluensis from Borneo. A fourth one, R. tiomanicus, is restricted to lowland elevations across the whole region. The origins of these endemics are little known due to the absence of a robust phylogenetic framework. We use complete mitochondrial genomes from the 3 high altitude Rattus, and several related species to determine their relationships, date divergences, reconstruct their history of colonization, and test for selection on the mitochondrial DNA. We show that mountain colonization happened independently in Borneo (<390 Kya) and Sumatra (~1.38 Mya), likely from lowland lineages. The origin of the Bornean endemic R. baluensis is very recent and its genetic diversity is nested within the diversity of R. tiomanicus. We found weak evidence of positive selection in the high-elevation lineages and attributed the greater nonsynonymous mutations on these branches (specially R. baluensis) to lesser purifying selection having acted on the terminal branches in the phylogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Camacho-Sanchez
- Conservation and Evolutionary Genetics Group, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
| | - Jennifer A Leonard
- Conservation and Evolutionary Genetics Group, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
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19
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Bannikova AA, Zemlemerova ED, Lebedev VS, Lavrenchenko LA. The phylogenetic relationships within the Eastern Afromontane clade of Crocidura based on mitochondrial and nuclear data. Mamm Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s42991-021-00120-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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20
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Gauthier J, Pajkovic M, Neuenschwander S, Kaila L, Schmid S, Orlando L, Alvarez N. Museomics identifies genetic erosion in two butterfly species across the 20th century in Finland. Mol Ecol Resour 2020; 20:1191-1205. [PMID: 32304133 PMCID: PMC7540272 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.13167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Erosion of biodiversity generated by anthropogenic activities has been studied for decades and in many areas at the species level, using taxa monitoring. In contrast, genetic erosion within species has rarely been tracked, and is often studied by inferring past population dynamics from contemporaneous estimators. An alternative to such inferences is the direct examination of past genes, by analysing museum collection specimens. While providing direct access to genetic variation over time, historical DNA is usually not optimally preserved, and it is necessary to apply genotyping methods based on hybridization-capture to unravel past genetic variation. In this study, we apply such a method (i.e., HyRAD), to large time series of two butterfly species in Finland, and present a new bioinformatic pipeline, namely PopHyRAD, that standardizes and optimizes the analysis of HyRAD data at the within-species level. In the localities for which the data retrieved have sufficient power to accurately examine genetic dynamics through time, we show that genetic erosion has increased across the last 100 years, as revealed by signatures of allele extinctions and heterozygosity decreases, despite local variations. In one of the two butterflies (Erebia embla), isolation by distance also increased through time, revealing the effect of greater habitat fragmentation over time.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mila Pajkovic
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Samuel Neuenschwander
- Vital-IT, Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lauri Kaila
- Zoology Unit, Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sarah Schmid
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ludovic Orlando
- Laboratoire AMIS CNRS UMR 5288, Faculté de Médecine de Purpan, Toulouse, France.,Globe Institut, Lundbeck Foundation GeoGenetics Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nadir Alvarez
- Geneva Natural History Museum, Geneva, Switzerland.,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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