Primary prevention of bleeding from esophageal varices in patients with liver cirrhosis: An update and review of the literature

The Prediction and Treatment of Bleeding Esophageal Varices in the Artificial Intelligence Era: A Review

Esophageal varices (EVs), a significant complication of cirrhosis, present a considerable challenge in clinical practice due to their high risk of bleeding and associated morbidity and mortality. This manuscript explores the transformative role of artificial intelligence (AI) in the management of EV, particularly in enhancing diagnostic accuracy and predicting bleeding risks. It underscores the potential of AI in offering noninvasive, efficient alternatives to traditional diagnostic methods such as esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). The complexity of EV management is highlighted, necessitating a multidisciplinary approach that includes pharmacological therapy, endoscopic interventions, and, in some cases, surgical options tailored to individual patient profiles. Additionally, the paper emphasizes the importance of integrating AI into medical education and practice, preparing healthcare professionals for the evolving landscape of medical technology. It projects a future where AI significantly influences the management of gastrointestinal bleeding, improving clinical decision-making, patient outcomes, and overall healthcare efficiency. The study advocates for a patient-centered approach in healthcare, balancing the incorporation of innovative technologies with ethical principles and the diverse needs of patients to optimize treatment efficacy and enhance healthcare accessibility.

Contemporary concepts of prevention and management of gastroesophageal variceal bleeding in liver cirrhosis patients

This editorial describes the contemporary concepts of prevention and management of gastroesophageal variceal bleeding in liver cirrhosis (LC) patients according to the current guidelines. Gastroesophageal variceal bleeding is the most dangerous complication of portal hypertension in LC patients. Risk stratification and determination of an individual approach to the choice of therapeutic measures aimed at their prevention and management has emerged as one of the top concerns in modern hepatology. According to the current guidelines, in the absence of clinically significant portal hypertension, etiological and non-etiological therapies of LC is advisable for the primary preventing gastroesophageal variceal bleeding, whereas its presence serves as an indication for the administration of non-selective β-blockers, among which carvedilol is the drug of choice. Non-selective β-blockers, as well as endoscopic variceal ligation and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt can be used to prevent recurrence of gastroesophageal variceal bleeding. Pharmacotherapy with vasoactive drugs (terlipressin, somatostatin, octreotide), endoscopic variceal ligation, endovascular techniques and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt are recommended for the treatment of acute gastroesophageal variceal bleeding. Objective and accurate risk stratification of gastroesophageal variceal bleeding will allow developing individual strategies for their prevention and management, avoiding the first and further decompensation in LC, which will improve the prognosis and survival of patients suffering from it.

THE ROLE OF ELASTOGRAPHY IN CLINICALLY SIGNIFICANT PORTAL HYPERTENSION

• In compensated cirrhosis, using non-invasive methods would exempt the patient from the need of an endoscopy. • The Baveno VII presented the "rule of 5" for Vibration-Controlled Transient Elastography; liver stiffness measurement ≤15 kPa and platelets >150.000/mm3 exclude clinically significant portal hypertension (CSPH), while when ≥25 kPa is highly suggestive of CSPH. • Spleen stiffness measurement has been proposed as a more specific technique to predict the presence of CSPH. • Elastography has gained prestige in the non-invasive evaluation of patients with advanced chronic liver disease by allowing prophylactic measures to be taken when suggesting the presence of CSPH. This is a narrative review that aims to discuss the importance of elastographic methods in the evaluation of clinically significant portal hypertension (CSPH) in cirrhotic patients, where the authors propose an algorithm for evaluating these patients. In compensated advanced chronic liver disease, the goal is to prevent the development of CSPH and, in those already with CSPH, prevent the appearance of gastroesophageal varices (GEV) and other complications of portal hypertension. In compensated cirrhosis, the prevalence of GEV is 30-40%, of which 10-20% are at risk of bleeding. Therefore, using non-invasive methods would exempt the patient from the need of an endoscopy. Hepatic Elastography is a non-invasive, safe, reproducible method, available through many techniques: Vibration-Controlled Transient Elastography (VCTE), Shear Wave Elastography (SWE) and Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE). The Baveno VII presented the "rule of 5" for VCTE: liver stiffness measurement (LSM) ≤15 kPa and platelets >150.000/mm3 exclude CSPH, while an LSM ≥25 kPa is highly suggestive of CSPH. Also, the "rule of 4" for SWE has been proposed: patients with ≥17 kPa could be considered as having CSPH. At last, spleen stiffness measurement (SSM) has been proposed as a more specific technique to predict the presence of CSPH. In conclusion, elastography has gained prestige in the non-invasive evaluation of patients with advanced chronic liver disease by allowing prophylactic measures to be taken when suggesting the presence of CSPH.

Prognosis after splenectomy plus pericardial devascularization vs transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for esophagogastric variceal bleeding

BACKGROUND

Portal hypertension combined with esophagogastric variceal bleeding (EGVB) is a serious complication in patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related cirrhosis in China. Splenectomy plus pericardial devascularization (SPD) and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) are effective treatments for EGVB. However, a comparison of the effectiveness and safety of those methods is lacking.

AIM

To compare the prognosis after SPD vs TIPS for acute EGVB after failure of endoscopic therapy or secondary prophylaxis of variceal rebleeding (VRB) in patients with HBV-related cirrhosis combined with portal hypertension.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included 318 patients with HBV-related cirrhosis and EGVB who underwent SPD or TIPS at West China Hospital of Sichuan University during 2009-2013. Propensity score-matched analysis (PSM), the Kaplan-Meier method, and multivariate Cox regression analysis were used to compare overall survival, VRB rate, liver function abnormality rate, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) incidence between the two patient groups.

RESULTS

The median age was 45.0 years (n = 318; 226 (71.1%) males). During a median follow-up duration of 43.0 mo, 18 (11.1%) and 33 (21.2%) patients died in the SPD and TIPS groups, respectively. After PSM, SPD was significantly associated with better overall survival (OS) (P = 0.01), lower rates of abnormal liver function (P < 0.001), and a lower incidence of HCC (P = 0.02) than TIPS. The VRB rate did not differ significantly between the two groups (P = 0.09).

CONCLUSION

Compared with TIPS, SPD is associated with higher postoperative OS rates, lower rates of abnormal liver function and HCC, and better quality of survival as acute EGVB treatment after failed endoscopic therapy or as secondary prophylaxis of VRB in patients with HBV-related cirrhosis combined with portal hypertension. There is no significant between-group difference in VRB rates.

Venous thromboembolism in in-hospital cirrhotic patients: A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Patients with liver cirrhosis are at a higher risk of hospitalization. The present review aimed to assess the risk of thromboembolism and its burden on hospitalized cirrhotic patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic review (PROSPERO: CRD42021256869) was conducted in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Lilacs, and a manual search of references. It evaluated studies that compare cirrhotic patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE) with cirrhotic patients without VTE or studies that compare cirrhotic patients with non-cirrhotic patients. No restrictions were set for the date of publication or language. The last search was conducted in June 2021.

RESULTS

After selection, 17 studies were included from an initial search of 5,323 articles. The chronic liver disease etiologies comprise viral, alcohol, autoimmune, NASH (non-alcoholic steatohepatitis), cryptogenic, hemochromatosis, cholestasis, and drug-related. The included studies were conflicted regarding the outcomes of VTE, pulmonary embolism, or bleeding. Patients with cirrhosis associated with VTE had prolonged length of hospital stay, and patients with cirrhosis were at higher risk of portal thrombosis.

CONCLUSION

In-hospital cirrhotic patients are a heterogeneous group of patients that may present both thrombosis and bleeding risk. Clinicians should take extra caution to apply both prophylactic and therapeutic anticoagulation strategies.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

[https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/], identifier [CRD42021256869].

Clinical characteristics and predictors of esophagogastric variceal bleeding among patients with HCV-induced liver cirrhosis: An observational comparative study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the clinical characteristics, risk factors, and predictors of esophagogastric variceal bleeding in patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV)-induced liver cirrhosis.

METHODS

This comparative observational study was carried out on 100 patients suffering from post hepatitis cirrhosis and portal hypertension who were admitted to the Internal Medicine Department, Al-Azhar University Hospital, Damietta Egypt. Patients were classified into two groups: 50 of them presented with esophagogastric varices with acute variceal bleeding, and 50 patients presented without bleeding. Data were collected, coded, revised, and entered into the Stata software version 16.

RESULTS

The mean age of patients with bleeding was slightly higher than those without bleeding (55.58 ± 5.89 vs. 52.54 ± 9.01 years), p = 0.049. Mild ascites, positive H.Pylori, and Child-Pugh score B and C were an independent predictors of esophagogastric variceal bleeding (OR = 0.036, 95% CI: 0.0004-0.36; p = 0.005), (OR = 7.36, 95% CI: 1.44-37.59; p = 0.016), (OR = 19.0, 95% CI: 2.02-186.3; p = 0.010), and (OR = 40.51, 95% CI: 2.18-751.31; p = 0.013). The sensitivity of this model was 93.88%, specificity was 53.85%, PPV was 88.46%, NPV was 70.0%, correctly classified patients were 85.48%, and AUC was 90.27%. In the second model, pepsinogen level higher than 43.5 μg/l, AST (>54.5), Bilirubin (>1.45), and Hemoglobin (>11.5) were a significant independent predictors of esophagogastric variceal bleeding (OR = 1.18, 95% CI: 1.09-1.27; p<0.001), (OR = 1.14, 95% CI: 1.03-1.27; p = 0.007), (OR = 5.55, 95% CI: 1.21-25.43; p = 0.027), and (OR = 0.05, 95% CI: 0.008-0.32; p = 0.002), respectively. The sensitivity of this model was 92%, specificity was 98%, PPV was 97.87%, NPV was 92.45%, correctly classified patients were 95%, and AUC was 98.68%.

CONCLUSION

The independent predictors of esophagogastric variceal bleeding were ascites, positive H. pylori, Child-Pugh score B and C, pepsinogen level higher than 43.5 μg/l, AST (>54.5), bilirubin (>1.45), and hemoglobin (>11.5). Laboratory investigations are more reliable in predicting variceal bleeding and excluding non-variceal bleeding; however, clinical symptoms should not be neglected, especially H. pylori infection, ascites, and Child-Pugh score.

Risk factors for decompensation and death following umbilical hernia repair in patients with end-stage liver disease

INTRODUCTION

Symptomatic umbilical hernias are a common cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with cirrhosis and end-stage liver disease (ESLD). This study set out to characterise the factors predicting outcome following repair of symptomatic umbilical hernias in ESLD at a single institution.

METHODS

A retrospective review was performed of all patients with ESLD who underwent repair of a symptomatic umbilical hernia between 1998 and 2020. Overall survival was predicted using the Kaplan-Meier method. Logistic regression was used to determine predictors of decompensation and 30-day, 90-day and 1-year mortality.

RESULTS

One-hundred-and-eight patients with ESLD underwent umbilical hernia repair (emergency n = 78, 72.2%). Transjugular shunting was performed in 29 patients (26.9%). Decompensation occurred in 44 patients (40.7%) and was predicted by emergency surgery (OR, 13.29; P = 0.001). Length of stay was shorter in elective patients compared to emergency patients (3-days vs. 7-days; P = 0.003). Thirty-day, 90-day and 1-year survival was 95.2, 93.2 and 85.4%, respectively. Model for ESLD score >15 predicted 90-day mortality (OR, 18.48; P = 0.030) and hyponatraemia predicted 1-year mortality (OR, 5.31; P = 0.047). Transjugular shunting predicted survival at 1 year (OR, 0.15; P = 0.038).

CONCLUSIONS

Repair of symptomatic umbilical hernias in patients with ESLD can be undertaken with acceptable outcomes in a specialist centre, however, this remains a high-risk intervention. Patients undergoing emergency repair are more likely to decompensate postoperatively, develop wound-related problems and have a longer length of stay. Transjugular shunting may confer a benefit to survival, but further prospective trials are warranted.

Two-year risedronate treatment for osteoporosis in patients with esophageal varices: a non-randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Bisphosphonates are the mainstay of osteoporosis treatment, but their use for patients with esophageal varices has been avoided due to the risk of esophagitis, which may cause variceal bleeding. Since most clinical trials assessing osteoporosis treatment last 2-3 years, this study aimed to evaluate a 2-year risedronate treatment for patients with esophageal varices and liver cirrhosis.

METHODS

The study received Institutional Review Board approval, and the sample was divided into two groups according to bone mineral density (BMD). Cirrhosis severity and endoscopic findings at baseline were similar between the groups. The intervention group had 51 patients with osteoporosis, who received oral risedronate 35 mg weekly plus calcium and vitamin D supplements. The control group had 51 patients with osteopenia, receiving only the supplements. Scheduled esophagogastroduodenoscopies and BMD measurements were carried out.

RESULTS

The adjusted esophagitis risk was higher in the intervention group; however, none of the subjects had digestive bleeding. Lumbar spine BMD increased in the intervention group (- 3.06 ± 0.71 to - 2.33 ± 0.90; p < 0.001) and in the control group (- 1.38 ± 0.77 to - 1.10 ± 1.05; p = 0.012). Femoral neck BMD did not change in the intervention group (- 1.64 ± 0.91 to - 1.71 ± 0.95; p = 0.220), but tended to decrease in the control group (- 1.00 ± 0.74 to - 1.09 ± 0.82; p = 0.053).

CONCLUSION

Oral risedronate was effective and did not cause gastrointestinal bleeding in cirrhotic patients with esophageal varices under endoscopic surveillance.

Principles of diagnosis and treatment of alcohol-induced liver fibrosis

Alcohol-related liver diseases are one of the leading causes of death worldwide, primarily due to complications of liver cirrhosis (LC). Early detection of alcohol-induced liver fibrosis (LF) is a difficult task, since often  alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is clinically manifested only at late stages. Given that not all alcoholic suffer from ALD, the widespread use of liver biopsy to verify the diagnosis is not advisable. Despite the variety of proposed non-invasive methods for assessing the severity of LF in patients with ALD, none of them has sufficient validation and therefore cannot be recommended for widespread use in clinical practice. The most well-studied transient elastography, due to its suboptimal specificity, can be effectively used only to exclude clinically significant LF or LC. The only proven approach to treat ALD is persistent and total alcohol abstinence. While the therapeutic options for patients with severe forms of acute hepatitis remain unchanged since the 70s of the last century and are based mainly on the use of corticosteroids, currently, there are no approaches to antifibrotic therapy of ALD approved by the guidelines. At the same time, modern achievements in understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms  of this disease  have served  as an impetus  for  the development  of ways to solve  the problem. In particular, providing intestinal eubiosis may be an important goal for the prevention and treatment of alcohol-induced LF. Randomized controlled multicenter trials involving a large number of patients are needed to confirm this and other hypotheses related to antifibrotic therapy of ALD and to accept them as a standard of medical care.

Diagnostic Value of Non-invasive Scoring Systems in the Prediction of Esophageal Varices in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis—Single Center Experience

Background and Objectives: Upper endoscopy is considered the gold standard for screening and diagnosis of esophageal varices (EV). Non-invasive methods for predicting EV have become a research hotspot in recent years. The aim of this study was to assess the role of non-invasive scores in predicting the presence of EV in patients with liver cirrhosis, and to determine the value of these scores in predicting the outcome of patients with cirrhosis presenting with acute variceal bleeding. Materials and Methods: A total of 386 patients with liver cirrhosis were included. The model for end-stage liver disease (MELD), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) to alanine aminotransferase (ALT) ratio (AST/ALT), AST to platelet ratio index (APRI), fibrosis-4-index (FIB-4), fibrosis index (FI), King’s Score, albumin-bilirubin (ALBI) score, and platelet-albumin-bilirubin (PALBI) score were calculated. The discriminatory capacities of the examined scores in predicting the presence of esophageal varices were tested using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Results: The ROC curve analysis showed (area under the curve) AUC values of ALBI and PALBI of 0.603, and 0.606, respectively, for the prediction of EV. APRI, MELD, PALBI, King’s, FIB-4, and ALBI scores showed statistically significant correlation with EV bleeding (p < 0.05). AUC of APRI and MELD for predicting EV bleeding were 0.662 and 0.637, respectively. The AUC value of MELD in short-term mortality was 0.761. Conclusions: ALBI and PALBI scores had modest diagnostic accuracy of EVs in liver cirrhosis. APRI and MELD can be used as a reference index for the EV bleeding, and MELD score is best associated with short-term outcome in cirrhotic patients.

Elastography as a predictor of liver cirrhosis complications after hepatitis C virus eradication in the era of direct-acting antivirals

Chronic inflammation due to hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection leads to liver fibrosis and rearrangement of liver tissue, which is responsible for the development of portal hypertension (PH) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The advent of direct-acting antiviral drugs has revolutionized the natural history of HCV infection, providing an overall eradication rate of over 90%. Despite a significant decrease after sustained virological response (SVR), the rate of HCC and liver-related complications is not completely eliminated in patients with advanced liver disease. Although the reasons are still unclear, cirrhosis itself has a residual risk for the development of HCC and other PH-related complications. Ultrasound elastography is a recently developed non-invasive technique for the assessment of liver fibrosis. Following the achievement of SVR, liver stiffness (LS) usually decreases, as a consequence of reduced inflammation and, possibly, fibrosis. Recent studies emphasized the application of LS assessment in the management of patients with SVR in order to define the risk for developing the complications of chronic liver disease (functional decompensation, gastrointestinal bleeding, HCC) and to optimize long-term prognostic outcomes in clinical practice.

[The role of antiviral therapy in the management of patients with liver cirrhosis associated with chronic HBV and HCV infection]

The formation of the liver cirrhosis (LC) is an unfavorable event of the natural history of chronic liver diseases being accompanied by complications that often cause a fatal outcome. The study of the effectiveness of drugs that affect various etiopathogenetic mechanisms of this condition is an urgent problem of modern hepatology.The aim of the review was to show the role of antiviral therapy (AVT) in the management of patients with LC associated with chronic HBV (hepatitis B virus) and HCV (hepatitis C virus) infection.PubMed database, Google Scholar search engine, Cochrane Systematic Reviews, eLIBRARY.RU electronic scientific library, as well as the reference lists of articles were used to search for scientific articles. The relevant objectives of the review of the publications were identified for the period since 2000 up to 2021 by the search queries as following: «liver cirrhosis», «liver fibrosis», «chronic HBV infection», «chronic HCV infection», «portal hypertension», «treatment». The inclusion criteria were restricted to the management of patients with LC associated with chronic HBV and HCV infection.Current guidelines recommend indefinite treatment of patients with HBV-associated LC with nucleos(t)ide analogues regardless of serum HBV DNA levels, while the modern concept of using direct-acting antiviral drug combinations has become the standard treatment for HCV-associated cirrhosis. Studies have shown the ability of AVT to inhibit and reverse fibrotic processes in LC associated with chronic HBV and HCV infection. It has also been reported that HBV/HCV eradication prior to orthotopic liver transplantation improves long-term overall survival.This, in turn, can reduce the severity of portal hypertension and decrease the risk of associated complications, as well as normalize liver function. Thus, ensuring the availability of drugs for those in need of AVT will not only help prevent the development of LC, but also improve the quality of life and increase its expectancy of patients suffering from this disease.

Usefulness of Endoscopic Ultrasound with the Jelly-Filling Method for Esophageal Varices

Although the importance of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) for esophageal varices (EVs) has been demonstrated, it is difficult to obtain sufficient EUS images with the water-filling method because of poor water stagnation in the esophagus. In this study on EVs, we aimed to evaluate the usefulness of the jelly-filling method for EUS. Consecutive patients who underwent EUS for EVs were included. The quality of EUS images, the diagnostic ability of the presence of blood vessels inside and outside the esophageal wall, and the procedure time were compared between the jelly-filling and water-filling methods. Thirty cases were analyzed (jelly-filling method in 13 and water-filling method in 17). The EUS image quality score was significantly higher in the jelly-filling method (jelly vs. water; three points vs. two points, p < 0.001). Additionally, EUS image quality scores in both nonexperts and experts were significantly higher in the jelly-filling method. The diagnostic ability of the presence of perforation veins was significantly higher in the jelly-filling method (jelly vs. water; 100% vs. 52.9%, p = 0.004). However, the procedure time was significantly longer in the jelly-filling method (p = 0.024). In conclusion, EUS using the jelly-filling method for EVs provided sufficient image quality.