1
|
Panara V, Varaliová Z, Wilting J, Koltowska K, Jeltsch M. The relationship between the secondary vascular system and the lymphatic vascular system in fish. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 38940420 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
New technologies have resulted in a better understanding of blood and lymphatic vascular heterogeneity at the cellular and molecular levels. However, we still need to learn more about the heterogeneity of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems among different species at the anatomical and functional levels. Even the deceptively simple question of the functions of fish lymphatic vessels has yet to be conclusively answered. The most common interpretation assumes a similar dual setup of the vasculature in zebrafish and mammals: a cardiovascular circulatory system, and a lymphatic vascular system (LVS), in which the unidirectional flow is derived from surplus interstitial fluid and returned into the cardiovascular system. A competing interpretation questions the identity of the lymphatic vessels in fish as at least some of them receive their flow from arteries via specialised anastomoses, neither requiring an interstitial source for the lymphatic flow nor stipulating unidirectionality. In this alternative view, the 'fish lymphatics' are a specialised subcompartment of the cardiovascular system, called the secondary vascular system (SVS). Many of the contradictions found in the literature appear to stem from the fact that the SVS develops in part or completely from an embryonic LVS by transdifferentiation. Future research needs to establish the extent of embryonic transdifferentiation of lymphatics into SVS blood vessels. Similarly, more insight is needed into the molecular regulation of vascular development in fish. Most fish possess more than the five vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) genes and three VEGF receptor genes that we know from mice or humans, and the relative tolerance of fish to whole-genome and gene duplications could underlie the evolutionary diversification of the vasculature. This review discusses the key elements of the fish lymphatics versus the SVS and attempts to draw a picture coherent with the existing data, including phylogenetic knowledge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Panara
- Rudbeck Laboratory, Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, Uppsala, 751 85, Sweden
- Beijer Laboratory, Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, Uppsala, 751 85, Sweden
- Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18 A, Uppsala, 752 36, Sweden
| | - Zuzana Varaliová
- Rudbeck Laboratory, Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, Uppsala, 751 85, Sweden
- Drug Research Program, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki, 00790, Finland
| | - Jörg Wilting
- Institute of Anatomy and Embryology, University Medical School Göttingen, Kreuzbergring 36, Göttingen, 37075, Germany
| | - Katarzyna Koltowska
- Rudbeck Laboratory, Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, Uppsala, 751 85, Sweden
- Beijer Laboratory, Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, Uppsala, 751 85, Sweden
| | - Michael Jeltsch
- Drug Research Program, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki, 00790, Finland
- Individualized Drug Therapy Research Program, University of Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, Helsinki, 00290, Finland
- Wihuri Research Institute, Haartmaninkatu 8, Helsinki, 00290, Finland
- Helsinki One Health, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 4, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
- Helsinki Institute of Sustainability Science, Yliopistonkatu 3, Helsinki, 00100, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Introduction Neutrophilic granulocytes are short‐lived cells continuously circulating in the vascular system of vertebrates. They play a basic and decisive role in the innate immune defence of the hosts against all types of pathogenic microorganisms. Methods Based on a literature study, the functions of neutrophils and cells with similar functions are described. The study places special emphasis on organisms in the aquatic environment and the pathogens occurring in that particular environment. Results The evolutionary origin of this specific cell type is not clear, but its most basic traits (recognition of foreign elements, extracellular trap release, phagocytosis and elimination of ingested material) are found in phagocytes in members of evolutionary ancient invertebrate groups spanning from amoebae, sponges, sea‐anemones, mollusks (snails and mussels), arthropods (crustaceans and insects) to echinoderms (sea stars and sea urchins). Their functions as innate immune sentinels and effector cells in these groups are well described. Neutrophilic granulocytes with elongated and lobed nuclei (possibly allowing cell movements through narrow extracellular spaces and leaving space for phagosomes) occur in vertebrates including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals although the morphology of the nucleus, stainability of cytoplasmic granula, and the antimicrobial armament vary among groups. Following the pathogen invasion of a fish host, the neutrophils migrates from the vascular system into the infection focus. They apply their PRRs (including TLRs) to recognize the invader as non‐self, produce netosis by casting extracellular chromatin containing traps in the microenvironment. These nets assist the immobilization of invading microbes and prevents their further spread. The cells attach to and engulf the microbes by phagocytosis, whereafter they eliminate the pathogen in phagolysosomes equipped with a range of killing mechanisms and attract, by release of chemokines, additional immune cells (monocytes, macrophages and lymphocytes) to the site of invasion. Their role in innate immunity of fish hosts towards aquatic pathogens has been elucidated by in vivo and in vitro studies. Neutrophils interact with virus (e.g. IPNV and VHSV), bacteria (e.g. Aeromonas, Vibrio, Edwardsiella, Mycobacterium and Renibacterium) and parasites, including monogeneans (Gyrodactylus), cestodes (Diphyllobothrium), trematodes (Diplostomum) and ciliates (Ichthyophthirius and Philasterides). Despite the decisive function of neutrophils in innate immunity and early protection, the excessive production of ROS, RNS and NETs may lead to pathological disturbances in the host, which are exacerbated if the pathogens evolve immune evasion mechanisms. Conclusion Neutrophils in aquatic organisms play a central role in innate immunity but may serve as a toll and a support in acquired protection. The strong impact of the cellular reactions not only on pathogen but also on host tissues emphasizes that an optimal immune reaction is balanced, involves targeted and specific effector mechanisms, which leaves a minimum of collateral damage in host organs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Buchmann
- Laboratory of Aquatic Pathobiology, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cao J, Chen Q, Lu M, Hu X, Wang M. Histology and ultrastructure of the thymus during development in tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. J Anat 2017; 230:720-733. [PMID: 28233306 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The thymus in teleost fishes plays an important role in producing functionally competent T-lymphocytes. However, the thymus in tilapia is not well known, which greatly hampers investigations into the immune responses of tilapia infected by aquatic pathogens. The histological structure and ultrastructure of the thymus in Oreochromis niloticus, including embryos and larvae at different developmental stages, juveniles, and adult fish, were systematically investigated using whole mount in situ hybridization (WISH), and light and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The position of the thymus primordium was first labeled in the embryo at 2 days post-fertilization (dpf) with the thymus marker gene recombination activating gene 1 (Rag1), when the water temperature was 27 °C. Obvious structures of the thymus were easily observed in 4-dpf embryos. At this stage, the thymus was filled with stem cells. At 6 dpf, the thymus differentiated into the cortex and medulla. The shape of the thymus was 'broad bean'-like during the early stages from 4 to 10 dpf, and became wedge-shaped in fish larvae at 20 dpf. At 6 months post-fertilization (mpf), the thymus differentiated into the peripheral zone, central zone, and inner zone. During this stage, myoid cells and adipocytes appeared in the inner zone following thymus degeneration. Then, the thymus displayed more advanced degeneration by 1 year post-fertilization (ypf), and the separation of cortex and medulla was not observed at this stage. The thymic trabecula and lobule were absent during the entire course of development. However, the typical Hassall's corpuscle was present and underwent degeneration. Additionally, TEM showed that the thymic tissues contained a wide variety of cell types, namely lymphocytes, macrophages, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and mastocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianmeng Cao
- Key Laboratory of Tropical & Subtropical Fishery Resource Application & Cultivation, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical & Subtropical Fishery Resource Application & Cultivation, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China.,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Maixin Lu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical & Subtropical Fishery Resource Application & Cultivation, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xinxin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical & Subtropical Fishery Resource Application & Cultivation, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China.,College of Fisheries and Life Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Miao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical & Subtropical Fishery Resource Application & Cultivation, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Dalum AS, Griffiths DJ, Valen EC, Amthor KS, Austbø L, Koppang EO, Press CM, Kvellestad A. Morphological and functional development of the interbranchial lymphoid tissue (ILT) in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 58:153-164. [PMID: 27633679 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2016.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 08/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The interbranchial lymphoid tissue (ILT) of Atlantic salmon originates from an embryological location that in higher vertebrates gives rise to both primary and secondary lymphoid tissues. Still much is unknown about the morphological and functional development of the ILT. In the present work a standardized method of organ volume determination was established to study its development in relation to its containing gill and the thymus. Based on morphological findings and gene transcription data, the ILT shows no signs of primary lymphoid function. In contrast to the thymus, an ILT-complex first became discernible after the yolk-sac period. After its appearance, the ILT-complex constitutes 3-7% of the total volume of the gill (excluding the gill arch) with the newly described distal ILT constituting a major part, and in adult fish it is approximately 13 times larger than the thymus. Confined regions of T-cell proliferation are present within the ILT. Communication with systemic circulation through the distal ILT is also highly plausible thus offering both internal and external recruitment of immune cells in the growing ILT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alf Seljenes Dalum
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway.
| | - David James Griffiths
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elin Christine Valen
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Lars Austbø
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Erling Olaf Koppang
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Charles McLean Press
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Agnar Kvellestad
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
M. Jaafar R, Ohtani M, W. Kania P, Buchmann K. Correlation between Leukocyte Numbers and Body Size of Rainbow Trout. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.4236/oji.2016.63011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
6
|
Aamelfot M, McBeath A, Christiansen DH, Matejusova I, Falk K. Infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) mucosal infection in Atlantic salmon. Vet Res 2015; 46:120. [PMID: 26490835 PMCID: PMC4618535 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0265-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
All viruses infecting fish must cross the surface mucosal barrier to successfully enter a host. Infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV), the causative agent of the economically important infectious salmon anaemia (ISA) in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., has been shown to use the gills as its entry point. However, other entry ports have not been investigated despite the expression of virus receptors on the surface of epithelial cells in the skin, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the conjunctiva. Here we investigate the ISAV mucosal infection in Atlantic salmon after experimental immersion (bath) challenge and in farmed fish collected from a confirmed outbreak of ISA in Norway. We show for the first time evidence of early replication in several mucosal surfaces in addition to the gills, including the pectoral fin, skin and GI tract suggesting several potential entry points for the virus. Initially, the infection is localized and primarily infecting epithelial cells, however at later stages it becomes systemic, infecting the endothelial cells lining the circulatory system. Viruses of low and high virulence used in the challenge revealed possible variation in virus progression during infection at the mucosal surfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Alastair McBeath
- Marine Scotland Science, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK.
| | | | - Iveta Matejusova
- Marine Scotland Science, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK.
| | - Knut Falk
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Dalum AS, Austbø L, Bjørgen H, Skjødt K, Hordvik I, Hansen T, Fjelldal PG, Press CM, Griffiths DJ, Koppang EO. The interbranchial lymphoid tissue of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salarL) extends as a diffuse mucosal lymphoid tissue throughout the trailing edge of the gill filament. J Morphol 2015; 276:1075-88. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alf S. Dalum
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences; Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine; Norwegian University of Life Sciences; Oslo Norway
| | - Lars Austbø
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences; Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine; Norwegian University of Life Sciences; Oslo Norway
| | - Håvard Bjørgen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences; Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine; Norwegian University of Life Sciences; Oslo Norway
| | - Karsten Skjødt
- Faculty of Health Science; Department of Cancer and Inflammation Research; Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
| | - Ivar Hordvik
- Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences; Department of Biology; University of Bergen; Bergen Norway
| | - Tom Hansen
- Matre Research Station; Institute of Marine Research; Matre Norway
| | - Per G. Fjelldal
- Matre Research Station; Institute of Marine Research; Matre Norway
| | - Charles McL Press
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences; Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine; Norwegian University of Life Sciences; Oslo Norway
| | - David J. Griffiths
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences; Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine; Norwegian University of Life Sciences; Oslo Norway
| | - Erling O. Koppang
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences; Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine; Norwegian University of Life Sciences; Oslo Norway
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Farrell AP, Eliason EJ, Clark TD, Steinhausen MF. Oxygen removal from water versus arterial oxygen delivery: calibrating the Fick equation in Pacific salmon. J Comp Physiol B 2014; 184:855-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-014-0839-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
9
|
Rummer JL, Wang S, Steffensen JF, Randall DJ. Function and control of the fish secondary vascular system, a contrast to mammalian lymphatic systems. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 217:751-7. [PMID: 24198251 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.086348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Teleost fishes and mammalian lineages diverged 400 million years ago, and environmental requirements (water versus air) have resulted in marked differences in cardiovascular function between fish and mammals. Suggestions that the fish secondary vascular system (SVS) could be used as a model for the mammalian lymphatic system should be taken with caution. Despite molecular markers indicating similar genetic origin, functions of the SVS in teleost fish are probably different from those of the mammalian lymphatic system. We determined that, in resting glass catfish (Kryptopterus bicirrhis), plasma moves from the primary vascular system (PVS) to the SVS through small connecting vessels less than 10 μm in diameter, smaller than the red blood cells (RBCs). During and following hypoxia or exercise, flow increases and RBCs enter the SVS, possibly via β-adrenoreceptor-mediated dilation of the connecting vessels. The volume of the SVS can be large and, as RBCs flow into the SVS, the haematocrit of the PVS falls by as much as 50% of the resting value. Possible functions of the SVS, including skin respiration, ionic and osmotic buffering, and reductions in heart work and RBC turnover, are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J L Rummer
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, S.A.R. China
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hedrick MS, Hillman SS, Drewes RC, Withers PC. Lymphatic regulation in nonmammalian vertebrates. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2013; 115:297-308. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00201.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
All vertebrate animals share in common the production of lymph through net capillary filtration from their closed circulatory system into their tissues. The balance of forces responsible for net capillary filtration and lymph formation is described by the Starling equation, but additional factors such as vascular and interstitial compliance, which vary markedly among vertebrates, also have a significant impact on rates of lymph formation. Why vertebrates show extreme variability in rates of lymph formation and how nonmammalian vertebrates maintain plasma volume homeostasis is unclear. This gap hampers our understanding of the evolution of the lymphatic system and its interaction with the cardiovascular system. The evolutionary origin of the vertebrate lymphatic system is not clear, but recent advances suggest common developmental factors for lymphangiogenesis in teleost fishes, amphibians, and mammals with some significant changes in the water-land transition. The lymphatic system of anuran amphibians is characterized by large lymphatic sacs and two pairs of lymph hearts that return lymph into the venous circulation but no lymph vessels per se. The lymphatic systems of reptiles and some birds have lymph hearts, and both groups have extensive lymph vessels, but their functional role in both lymph movement and plasma volume homeostasis is almost completely unknown. The purpose of this review is to present an evolutionary perspective in how different vertebrates have solved the common problem of the inevitable formation of lymph from their closed circulatory systems and to point out the many gaps in our knowledge of this evolutionary progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael S. Hedrick
- Developmental Integrative Biology Cluster, Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas
| | | | - Robert C. Drewes
- Department of Herpetology, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California; and
| | - Philip C. Withers
- School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia
| |
Collapse
|