Electrophysiological effects of kainic acid on vasopressin-enhanced green fluorescent protein and oxytocin-monomeric red fluorescent protein 1 neurones isolated from the supraoptic nucleus in transgenic rats

Oestrogen-dependent hypothalamic oxytocin expression with changes in feeding and body weight in female rats

Oxytocin (OXT) is produced in the hypothalamic nuclei and secreted into systemic circulation from the posterior pituitary gland. In the central nervous system, OXT regulates behaviours including maternal and feeding behaviours. Our aim is to evaluate whether oestrogen regulates hypothalamic OXT dynamics. Herein, we provide the first evidence that OXT dynamics in the hypothalamus vary with sex and that oestrogen may modulate dynamic changes in OXT levels, using OXT-mRFP1 transgenic rats. The fluorescence intensity of OXT-mRFP1 and expression of the OXT and mRFP1 genes in the hypothalamic nuclei is highest during the oestrus stage in female rats and decreased significantly in ovariectomised rats. Oestrogen replacement caused significant increases in fluorescence intensity and gene expression in a dose-related manner. This is also demonstrated in the rats' feeding behaviour and hypothalamic Fos neurons using cholecystokinin-8 and immunohistochemistry. Hypothalamic OXT expression is oestrogen-dependent and can be enhanced centrally by the administration of oestrogen.

Transgenic approaches to opening up new fields of vasopressin and oxytocin research

Transgenic approaches have been applied to generate transgenic rats that express exogenous genes in arginine vasopressin (AVP)- and oxytocin (OXT)-producing magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MNCs) of the hypothalamic-neurohypophyseal system (HNS). First, the fusion gene that expresses AVP-enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) and OXT-monomeric red fluorescent protein 1 (mRFP1) was used to visualize AVP- and OXT-producing MNCs and their axon terminals in the HNS under fluorescence microscopy. Second, the fusion gene that expresses c-fos-eGFP and c-fos-mRFP1 was used to identify activated neurons physiologically in the central nervous system, including MNCs, circumventricular organs and spinal cord. In addition, AVP-eGFP x c-fos-mRFP1 and OXT-mRFP1 × c-fos-eGFP double transgenic rats were generated to identify activated AVP- and OXT-producing MNCs using appropriate physiological stimuli. Third, the fusion gene that expresses AVP-chanelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2)-eGFP and AVP-hM3Dq-mCherry was used to activate AVP- and OXT-producing MNCs by optogenetic and chemogenetic approaches. In each step, these transgenic approaches in rats have provided new insights on the physiological roles of AVP and OXT not only in the HNS, but also in the whole body. In this review, we summarize the transgenic rats that we generated, as well as related physiological findings.

Advanced genetic and viral methods for labelling and manipulation of oxytocin and vasopressin neurones in rats

Rats have been widely used as one of the most common laboratory animals for biological research, because their physiology, pathology, and behavioral characteristics are highly similar to humans. Recent developments in rat genetic modification techniques have now led to further their utility for a broad range of research questions, including the ability to specifically label individual neurones, and even manipulate neuronal function in rats. We have succeeded in generating several transgenic rat lines that enable visualization of specific neurones due to their expression of fluorescently-tagged oxytocin, vasopressin, and c-fos protein. Furthermore, we have been able to generate novel transgenic rat lines in which we can activate vasopressin neurones using optogenetic and chemogenetic techniques. In this review, we will summarize the techniques of genetic modification for labeling and manipulating the specific neurones. Successful examples of generating transgenic rat lines in our lab and usefulness of these rats will also be introduced. These transgenic rat lines enable the interrogation of neuronal function and physiology in a way that was not possible in the past, providing novel insights into neuronal mechanisms both in vivo and ex vivo.

Electrophysiology of Hypothalamic Magnocellular Neurons In vitro: A Rhythmic Drive in Organotypic Cultures and Acute Slices

Hypothalamic neurohormones are released in a pulsatile manner. The mechanisms of this pulsatility remain poorly understood and several hypotheses are available, depending upon the neuroendocrine system considered. Among these systems, hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal magnocellular neurons have been early-considered models, as they typically display an electrical activity consisting of bursts of action potentials that is optimal for the release of boluses of the neurohormones oxytocin and vasopressin. The cellular mechanisms underlying this bursting behavior have been studied in vitro, using either acute slices of the adult hypothalamus, or organotypic cultures of neonatal hypothalamic tissue. We have recently proposed, from experiments in organotypic cultures, that specific central pattern generator networks, upstream of magnocellular neurons, determine their bursting activity. Here, we have tested whether a similar hypothesis can be derived from in vitro experiments in acute slices of the adult hypothalamus. To this aim we have screened our electrophysiological recordings of the magnocellular neurons, previously obtained from acute slices, with an analysis of autocorrelation of action potentials to detect a rhythmic drive as we recently did for organotypic cultures. This confirmed that the bursting behavior of magnocellular neurons is governed by central pattern generator networks whose rhythmic drive, and thus probably integrity, is however less satisfactorily preserved in the acute slices from adult brains.

Effects of a subconvulsive dose of kainic acid on the gene expressions of the arginine vasopressin, oxytocin and neuronal nitric oxide synthase in the rat hypothalamus

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) synthesis in the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system (HNS) is up-regulated by kainic acid (KA)-induced seizure in rats. However, it remains unknown whether a subconvulsive dose of KA affects the HNS. Here we examined the effects of subcutaneous (s.c.) administration of a low dose of KA (4 mg/kg) on the gene expressions of the AVP, oxytocin (OXT) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) in the supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular nuclei (PVN) of the rat hypothalamus, using in situ hybridization histochemistry. The expression of the AVP gene in the SON and PVN was judged to be up-regulated in KA-treated rats in comparison with saline-treated rats as controls. Next, the expression of the OXT gene was significantly increased in the SON at 6-24h and in the PVN at 6 and 12h after s.c. administration of KA. Finally, the expression of the nNOS gene was significantly increased in the SON and PVN at 3 and 6h after s.c. administration of KA. These results suggest that up-regulation of the gene expressions of the AVP, OXT and nNOS in the rat hypothalamus may be differentially affected by peripheral administration of a subconvulsive dose of KA.

Differences in acid-induced currents between oxytocin-mRFP1 and vasopressin-eGFP neurons isolated from the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of transgenic rats

The hypothalamic supraoptic nucleus (SON) and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) consists of two types of magnocellular neurosecretory cells, oxytocin (OXT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP). We generated and characterized rats that express an OXT-monomeric red fluorescent protein 1 (mRFP1) and an AVP-enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) fusion transgene. These transgenic rats enable the visualization of OXT or AVP neurons. Taking advantage of this, we examined the differences between OXT-mRFP1 neurons and AVP-eGFP neurons in response to acid. Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are neuronal voltage-insensitive cationic channels that are activated by extracellular acidification. Although functional ASICs have been identified in AVP neurons, differences in acid-induced currents between OXT and AVP neurons in SON have not been reported. In the present study, we used the whole-cell patch-clamp technique to investigate differences between OXT-mRFP1 neurons and AVP-eGFP neurons reaction to acid in SON and PVN. In voltage clamp mode, lowering extracellular pH evoked inward currents in both OXT-mRFP1 neurons and AVP-eGFP neurons. In our findings, the acid-induced currents in the OXT-mRFP1 neurons were significantly smaller than those in the AVP-eGFP neurons. These acid-induced currents were inhibited by amiloride, a known blocker of ASICs. Further, to compare the response to acid between OXT-mRFP1 and AVP-eGFP neurons in the same transgenic rat, we used a double transgenic rat by mating an OXT-mRFP1 transgenic rat with an AVP-eGFP transgenic rat. The acid-induced currents of OXT-mRFP1 neurons were significantly smaller than those of AVP-eGFP neurons from the double transgenic rats. These currents were almost completely inhibited by amiloride. The difference of acid-sensitivity between OXT and AVP neurons might contribute to maintaining systematic order in hypothalamic function.