Glioma stem cells: turpis omen in nomen? (The evil in the name?)

Different states of stemness of glioblastoma stem cells sustain glioblastoma subtypes indicating novel clinical biomarkers and high-efficacy customized therapies

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most malignant among gliomas with an inevitable lethal outcome. The elucidation of the physiology and regulation of this tumor is mandatory to unravel novel target and effective therapeutics. Emerging concepts show that the minor subset of glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) accounts for tumorigenicity, representing the true target for innovative therapies in GBM.

METHODS

Here, we isolated and established functionally stable and steadily expanding GSCs lines from a large cohort of GBM patients. The molecular, functional and antigenic landscape of GBM tissues and their derivative GSCs was highlited in a side-by-side comprehensive genomic and transcriptomic characterization by ANOVA and Fisher's exact tests. GSCs' physio-pathological hallmarks were delineated by comparing over time in vitro and in vivo their expansion, self-renewal and tumorigenic ability with hierarchical linear models for repeated measurements and Kaplan-Meier method. Candidate biomarkers performance in discriminating GBM patients' classification emerged by classification tree and patients' survival analysis.

RESULTS

Here, distinct biomarker signatures together with aberrant functional programs were shown to stratify GBM patients as well as their sibling GSCs population into TCGA clusters. Of importance, GSCs cells were demonstrated to fully resemble over time the molecular features of their patient of origin. Furthermore, we pointed out the existence of distinct GSCs subsets within GBM classification, inherently endowed with different self-renewal and tumorigenic potential. Particularly, classical GSCs were identified by more undifferentiated biological hallmarks, enhanced expansion and clonal capacity as compared to the more mature, relatively slow-propagating mesenchymal and proneural cells, likely endowed with a higher potential for infiltration either ex vivo or in vivo. Importantly, the combination of DCX and EGFR markers, selectively enriched among GSCs pools, almost exactly predicted GBM patients' clusters together with their survival and drug response.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study we report that an inherent enrichment of distinct GSCs pools underpin the functional inter-cluster variances displayed by GBM patients. We uncover two selectively represented novel functional biomarkers capable of discriminating GBM patients' stratification, survival and drug response, setting the stage for the determination of patient-tailored diagnostic and prognostic strategies and, mostly, for the design of appropriate, patient-selective treatment protocols.

Regulation of Cell Plasticity by Bromodomain and Extraterminal Domain (BET) Proteins: A New Perspective in Glioblastoma Therapy

BET proteins are a family of multifunctional epigenetic readers, mainly involved in transcriptional regulation through chromatin modelling. Transcriptome handling ability of BET proteins suggests a key role in the modulation of cell plasticity, both in fate decision and in lineage commitment during embryonic development and in pathogenic conditions, including cancerogenesis. Glioblastoma is the most aggressive form of glioma, characterized by a very poor prognosis despite the application of a multimodal therapy. Recently, new insights are emerging about the glioblastoma cellular origin, leading to the hypothesis that several putative mechanisms occur during gliomagenesis. Interestingly, epigenome dysregulation associated with loss of cellular identity and functions are emerging as crucial features of glioblastoma pathogenesis. Therefore, the emerging roles of BET protein in glioblastoma onco-biology and the compelling demand for more effective therapeutic strategies suggest that BET family members could be promising targets for translational breakthroughs in glioblastoma treatment. Primarily, “Reprogramming Therapy”, which is aimed at reverting the malignant phenotype, is now considered a promising strategy for GBM therapy.

Growth factor independence underpins a paroxysmal, aggressive Wnt5aHigh/EphA2Low phenotype in glioblastoma stem cells, conducive to experimental combinatorial therapy

Background

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an incurable tumor, with a median survival rate of only 14–15 months. Along with heterogeneity and unregulated growth, a central matter in dealing with GBMs is cell invasiveness. Thus, improving prognosis requires finding new agents to inhibit key multiple pathways, even simultaneously. A subset of GBM stem-like cells (GSCs) may account for tumorigenicity, representing, through their pathways, the proper cellular target in the therapeutics of glioblastomas. GSCs cells are routinely enriched and expanded due to continuous exposure to specific growth factors, which might alter some of their intrinsic characteristic and hide therapeutically relevant traits.

Methods

By removing exogenous growth factors stimulation, here we isolated and characterized a subset of GSCs with a “mitogen-independent” phenotype (I-GSCs) from patient’s tumor specimens. Differential side-by-side comparative functional and molecular analyses were performed either in vitro or in vivo on these cells versus their classical growth factor (GF)-dependent counterpart (D-GSCs) as well as their tissue of origin. This was performed to pinpoint the inherent GSCs’ critical regulators, with particular emphasis on those involved in spreading and tumorigenic potential. Transcriptomic fingerprints were pointed out by ANOVA with Benjamini-Hochberg False Discovery Rate (FDR) and association of copy number alterations or somatic mutations was determined by comparing each subgroup with a two-tailed Fisher’s exact test. The combined effects of interacting in vitro and in vivo with two emerging GSCs’ key regulators, such as Wnt5a and EphA2, were then predicted under in vivo experimental settings that are conducive to clinical applications. In vivo comparisons were carried out in mouse-human xenografts GBM model by a hierarchical linear model for repeated measurements and Dunnett’s multiple comparison test with the distribution of survival compared by Kaplan–Meier method.

Results

Here, we assessed that a subset of GSCs from high-grade gliomas is self-sufficient in the activation of regulatory growth signaling. Furthermore, while constitutively present within the same GBM tissue, these GF-independent GSCs cells were endowed with a distinctive functional and molecular repertoire, defined by highly aggressive Wnt5aHigh/EphA2Low profile, as opposed to Wnt5aLow/EphA2High expression in sibling D-GSCs. Regardless of their GBM subtype of origin, I-GSCs, are endowed with a raised in vivo tumorigenic potential than matched D-GSCs, which were fast-growing ex-vivo but less lethal and invasive in vivo. Also, the malignant I-GSCs’ transcriptomic fingerprint faithfully mirrored the original tumor, bringing into evidence key regulators of invasiveness, angiogenesis and immuno-modulators, which became candidates for glioma diagnostic/prognostic markers and therapeutic targets. Particularly, simultaneously counteracting the activity of the tissue invasive mediator Wnt5a and EphA2 tyrosine kinase receptor addictively hindered GSCs’ tumorigenic and invasive ability, thus increasing survival.

Conclusion

We show how the preservation of a mitogen-independent phenotype in GSCs plays a central role in determining the exacerbated tumorigenic and high mobility features distinctive of GBM. The exploitation of the I-GSCs' peculiar features shown here offers new ways to identify novel, GSCs-specific effectors, whose modulation can be used in order to identify novel, potential molecular therapeutic targets. Furthermore, we show how the combined use of PepA, the anti-Wnt5a drug, and of ephrinA1-Fc to can hinder GSCs’ lethality in a clinically relevant xenogeneic in vivo model thus being conducive to perspective, novel combinatorial clinical application.

Matrix Hyaluronic Acid and Hypoxia Influence a CD133+ Subset of Patient-Derived Glioblastoma Cells

Glioblastoma (GBM) displays diffusive invasion throughout the brain microenvironment, which is partially responsible for its short median survival rate (<15 months). Stem-like subpopulations (GBM stem-like cells, GSCs) are believed to play a central role in therapeutic resistance and poor patient prognosis. Given the extensive tissue remodeling and processes such as vessel co-option and regression that occur in the tumor microenvironment, it is essential to understand the role of metabolic constraint such as hypoxia on GBM cell populations. This work describes the use of a multidimensional gelatin hydrogel to culture patient-derived GBM cells, to evaluate the influence of hypoxia and the inclusion brain-mimetic hyaluronic acid on the relative activity of GSCs versus overall GBM cells. Notably, CD133+ GBM cell fraction is crucial for robust formation of tumor spheroids in multidimensional cultures. In addition, while the relative size of the CD133+ GBM subpopulation increased in response to both hypoxia and matrix-bound hyaluronan, we did not observe cell subtype-specific changes in invasion signaling pathway activation. Taken together, this study highlights the potential of biomimetic culture systems for resolving changes in the population dynamics and behavior of subsets of GBM specimens for the future development of precision medicine applications. Impact Statement This study describes a gelatin hydrogel platform to investigate the role of extracellular hyaluronic acid and hypoxia on the behavior of a CD133+ subset of cells within patient-derived glioblastoma (GBM) specimens. We report that the relative expansion of the CD133+ GBM stem cell-like population is strongly responsive to extracellular cues, highlighting the significance of biomimetic hydrogel models of the tumor microenvironment to investigate invasion and therapeutic response.

Crosstalk between microglia and patient-derived glioblastoma cells inhibit invasion in a three-dimensional gelatin hydrogel model

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma is the most common and deadly form of primary brain cancer, accounting for more than 13,000 new diagnoses annually in the USA alone. Microglia are the innate immune cells within the central nervous system, acting as a front-line defense against injuries and inflammation via a process that involves transformation from a quiescent to an activated phenotype. Crosstalk between GBM cells and microglia represents an important axis to consider in the development of tissue engineering platforms to examine pathophysiological processes underlying GBM progression and therapy.

METHODS

This work used a brain-mimetic hydrogel system to study patient-derived glioblastoma specimens and their interactions with microglia. Here, glioblastoma cells were either cultured alone in 3D hydrogels or in co-culture with microglia in a manner that allowed secretome-based signaling but prevented direct GBM-microglia contact. Patterns of GBM cell invasion were quantified using a three-dimensional spheroid assay. Secretome and transcriptome (via RNAseq) were used to profile the consequences of GBM-microglia interactions.

RESULTS

Microglia displayed an activated phenotype as a result of GBM crosstalk. Three-dimensional migration patterns of patient-derived glioblastoma cells showed invasion was significantly decreased in response to microglia paracrine signaling. Potential molecular mechanisms underlying with this phenotype were identified from bioinformatic analysis of secretome and RNAseq data.

CONCLUSION

The data demonstrate a tissue engineered hydrogel platform can be used to investigate crosstalk between immune cells of the tumor microenvironment related to GBM progression. Such multi-dimensional models may provide valuable insight to inform therapeutic innovations to improve GBM treatment.

mTOR Modulates Intercellular Signals for Enlargement and Infiltration in Glioblastoma Multiforme

Simple Summary

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive and lethal primary brain tumor. Emerging evidence indicate the multi-faceted role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in GBM growth and proliferation. In fact, GBM-derived EVs can alter the phenotype of GBM-associated parenchymal cells; thus, promoting tumor growth, angiogenesis, and immune evasion. Remarkably, among several pathways that are frequently deregulated in GBM, mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) up-regulation, and subsequent autophagy (ATG) depression are considered hallmarks of GBM. In fact, mTOR-dependent ATG inhibition strongly correlates with the presence of EVs, which in turn promotes glioblastoma cancer stem cells (GSCs) self-renewal, proliferation, and infiltration. ATG and exosome release are reciprocally regulated. In detail, a failure in ATG enhances exosomal release. Therefore, strategies aimed at targeting on mTOR-dependent extracellular vesicles could be a promising approach for GBM prevention and treatment.

Abstract

Recently, exosomal release has been related to the acquisition of a malignant phenotype in glioblastoma cancer stem cells (GSCs). Remarkably, intriguing reports demonstrate that GSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) contribute to glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) tumorigenesis via multiple pathways by regulating tumor growth, infiltration, and immune invasion. In fact, GSCs release tumor-promoting macrovesicles that can disseminate as paracrine factors to induce phenotypic alterations in glioma-associated parenchymal cells. In this way, GBM can actively recruit different stromal cells, which, in turn, may participate in tumor microenvironment (TME) remodeling and, thus, alter tumor progression. Vice versa, parenchymal cells can transfer their protein and genetic contents to GSCs by EVs; thus, promoting GSCs tumorigenicity. Moreover, GBM was shown to hijack EV-mediated cell-to-cell communication for self-maintenance. The present review examines the role of the mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) pathway in altering EVs/exosome-based cell-to-cell communication, thus modulating GBM infiltration and volume growth. In fact, exosomes have been implicated in GSC niche maintenance trough the modulation of GSCs stem cell-like properties, thus, affecting GBM infiltration and relapse. The present manuscript will focus on how EVs, and mostly exosomes, may act on GSCs and neighbor non tumorigenic stromal cells to modify their expression and translational profile, while making the TME surrounding the GSC niche more favorable for GBM growth and infiltration. Novel insights into the mTOR-dependent mechanisms regulating EV-mediated intercellular communication within GBM TME hold promising directions for future therapeutic applications.

Involvement of NOS2 Activity on Human Glioma Cell Growth, Clonogenic Potential, and Neurosphere Generation

Aberrant nitric oxide synthase 2 (NOS2) expression has been suggested as an interesting therapeutic target that is being implicated as a component of the molecular profile of several human malignant tumors, including glioblastoma, which is the most aggressive brain tumor with limited therapeutic options and poor prognosis. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effect of 1400W, a specific NOS2 inhibitor, on human glioma cells in terms of clonogenic potential, proliferation, migration rate, and neurosphere generation ability. NOS2 expression was determined by Western blotting. Nitric oxide (NO) production was measured through nitrite level determination. The trypan blue exclusion test and the plate colony formation assay were performed to evaluate cell proliferation and clonogenic potential. Cell proliferation and migration ability was assessed by the in vitro wound-healing assay. Neurosphere generation in a specific stemcell medium was investigated. NOS2 was confirmed to be expressed in both the glioma cell line and a human glioma primary culture, and overexpressed in relative derived neurospheres. Experiments that aimed to evaluate the influence of 1400W on U-87 MG, T98G (glioblastoma cell lines) and primary glioma cells sustained the crucial role played by NOS2 in proliferation, colony formation, migration, and neurosphere generation, thus supporting the emerging relevance of a NOS2/NO system as a prognostic factor for glioma malignancy and recurrence.

Association of Glioblastoma Multiforme Stem Cell Characteristics, Differentiation, and Microglia Marker Genes with Patient Survival

Patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) are at high risk to develop a relapse despite multimodal therapy. Assumedly, glioma stem cells (GSCs) are responsible for treatment resistance of GBM. Identification of specific GSC markers may help to develop targeted therapies. Here, we performed expression analyses of stem cell (ABCG2, CD44, CD95, CD133, ELF4, Nanog, and Nestin) as well as differentiation and microglia markers (GFAP, Iba1, and Sparc) in GBM compared to nonmalignant brain. Furthermore, the role of these proteins for patient survival and their expression in LN18 stem-like neurospheres was analyzed. At mRNA level, ABCG2 and CD95 were reduced, GFAP was unchanged; all other investigated markers were increased in GBM. At protein level, CD44, ELF4, Nanog, Nestin, and Sparc were elevated in GBM, but only CD133 and Nestin were strongly associated with survival time. In addition, ABCG2 and GFAP expression was decreased in LN18 neurospheres whereas CD44, CD95, CD133, ELF4, Nanog, Nestin, and Sparc were upregulated. Altogether only CD133 and Nestin were associated with survival rates. This raises concerns regarding the suitability of the other target structures as prognostic markers, but makes both CD133 and Nestin candidates for GBM therapy. Nevertheless, a search for more specific marker proteins is urgently needed.

Inhibition of glioblastoma tumorspheres by combined treatment with 2-deoxyglucose and metformin

Background

Deprivation of tumor bioenergetics by inhibition of multiple energy pathways has been suggested as an effective therapeutic approach for various human tumors. However, this idea has not been evaluated in glioblastoma (GBM). We hypothesized that dual inhibition of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation could effectively suppress GBM tumorspheres (TS).

Methods

Effects of 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) and metformin, alone and in combination, on GBM-TS were evaluated. Viability, cellular energy metabolism status, stemness, invasive properties, and GBM-TS transcriptomes were examined. In vivo efficacy was tested in a mouse orthotopic xenograft model.

Results

GBM-TS viability was decreased by the combination of 2DG and metformin. ATP assay and PET showed that cellular energy metabolism was also decreased by this combination. Sphere formation, expression of stemness-related proteins, and invasive capacity of GBM-TS were also significantly suppressed by combined treatment with 2DG and metformin. A transcriptome analysis showed that the expression levels of stemness- and epithelial mesenchymal transition-related genes were also significantly downregulated by combination of 2DG and metformin. Combination treatment also prolonged survival of tumor-bearing mice and decreased invasiveness of GBM-TS.

Conclusion

The combination of 2DG and metformin effectively decreased the stemness and invasive properties of GBM-TS and showed a potential survival benefit in a mouse orthotopic xenograft model. Our findings suggest that targeting TS-forming cells by this dual inhibition of cellular bioenergetics warrants expedited clinical evaluation for the treatment of GBM.

Mir-21-Sox2 Axis Delineates Glioblastoma Subtypes with Prognostic Impact

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive human brain tumor. Although several molecular subtypes of GBM are recognized, a robust molecular prognostic marker has yet to be identified. Here, we report that the stemness regulator Sox2 is a new, clinically important target of microRNA-21 (miR-21) in GBM, with implications for prognosis. Using the MiR-21-Sox2 regulatory axis, approximately half of all GBM tumors present in the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and in-house patient databases can be mathematically classified into high miR-21/low Sox2 (Class A) or low miR-21/high Sox2 (Class B) subtypes. This classification reflects phenotypically and molecularly distinct characteristics and is not captured by existing classifications. Supporting the distinct nature of the subtypes, gene set enrichment analysis of the TCGA dataset predicted that Class A and Class B tumors were significantly involved in immune/inflammatory response and in chromosome organization and nervous system development, respectively. Patients with Class B tumors had longer overall survival than those with Class A tumors. Analysis of both databases indicated that the Class A/Class B classification is a better predictor of patient survival than currently used parameters. Further, manipulation of MiR-21-Sox2 levels in orthotopic mouse models supported the longer survival of the Class B subtype. The MiR-21-Sox2 association was also found in mouse neural stem cells and in the mouse brain at different developmental stages, suggesting a role in normal development. Therefore, this mechanism-based classification suggests the presence of two distinct populations of GBM patients with distinguishable phenotypic characteristics and clinical outcomes.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Molecular profiling-based classification of glioblastoma (GBM) into four subtypes has substantially increased our understanding of the biology of the disease and has pointed to the heterogeneous nature of GBM. However, this classification is not mechanism based and its prognostic value is limited. Here, we identify a new mechanism in GBM (the miR-21-Sox2 axis) that can classify ∼50% of patients into two subtypes with distinct molecular, radiological, and pathological characteristics. Importantly, this classification can predict patient survival better than the currently used parameters. Further, analysis of the miR-21-Sox2 relationship in mouse neural stem cells and in the mouse brain at different developmental stages indicates that miR-21 and Sox2 are predominantly expressed in mutually exclusive patterns, suggesting a role in normal neural development.

Pharmacologic Wnt Inhibition Reduces Proliferation, Survival, and Clonogenicity of Glioblastoma Cells

Wingless (Wnt) signaling is an important pathway in gliomagenesis and in the growth of stem-like glioma cells. Using immunohistochemistry to assess the translocation of β-catenin protein, we identified intranuclear staining suggesting Wnt pathway activation in 8 of 43 surgical samples (19%) from adult patients with glioblastoma and in 9 of 30 surgical samples (30%) from pediatric patients with glioblastoma. Wnt activity, evidenced by nuclear β-catenin in our cohort and high expression of its target AXIN2 (axis inhibitor protein 2) in published glioma datasets, was associated with shorter patient survival, although this was not statistically significant. We determined the effects of the porcupine inhibitor LGK974 on 3 glioblastoma cell lines with elevated AXIN2 and found that it reduced Wnt pathway activity by 50% or more, as assessed by T-cell factor luciferase reporters. Wnt inhibition led to suppression of growth, proliferation in cultures, and modest induction of cell death. LGK974 reduced NANOG messenger RNA levels and the fraction of cells expressing the stem cell marker CD133 in neurosphere cultures, induced glial differentiation, and suppressed clonogenicity. These data indicate that LGK974 is a promising new agent that can inhibit the canonical Wnt pathway in vitro, slow tumor growth, and deplete stem-like clonogenic cells, thereby providing further support for targeting Wnt in patients with glioblastoma.

Precursor States of Brain Tumor Initiating Cell Lines Are Predictive of Survival in Xenografts and Associated with Glioblastoma Subtypes

In glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), brain-tumor-initiating cells (BTICs) with cancer stem cell characteristics have been identified and proposed as primordial cells responsible for disease initiation, recurrence, and therapeutic resistance. However, the extent to which individual, patient-derived BTIC lines reflect the heterogeneity of GBM remains poorly understood. Here we applied a stem cell biology approach and compared self-renewal, marker expression, label retention, and asymmetric cell division in 20 BTIC lines. Through cluster analysis, we identified two subgroups of BTIC lines with distinct precursor states, stem- or progenitor-like, predictive of survival after xenograft. Moreover, stem and progenitor transcriptomic signatures were identified, which showed a strong association with the proneural and mesenchymal subtypes, respectively, in the TCGA cohort. This study proposes a different framework for the study and use of BTIC lines and provides precursor biology insights into GBM.

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BTICs are extensively characterized using a stem cell approach

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Two groups of BTIC lines are identified: stem-like and progenitor-like

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Progenitor-like BTICs lead to strikingly shorter survival in xenografted mice

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Stem- and progenitor-like profiles associate with proneural and mesenchymal subtypes

EGFR Amplification and Glioblastoma Stem-Like Cells

Glioblastoma (GBM), the most common malignant brain tumor in adults, contains a subpopulation of cells with a stem-like phenotype (GS-cells). GS-cells can be maintained in vitro using serum-free medium supplemented with epidermal growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor-2, and heparin. However, this method does not conserve amplification of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) gene, which is present in over 50% of all newly diagnosed GBM cases. GS-cells with retained EGFR amplification could overcome the limitations of current in vitro model systems and contribute significantly to preclinical research on EGFR-targeted therapy. This review recapitulates recent methodological approaches to expand stem-like cells from GBM with different EGFR status in order to maintain EGFR-dependent intratumoral heterogeneity in vitro. Further, it will summarize the current knowledge about the impact of EGFR amplification and overexpression on the stem-like phenotype of GBM-derived GS-cells and different approaches to target the EGFR-dependent GS-cell compartment of GBM.

Glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) epigenetic plasticity and interconversion between differentiated non-GSCs and GSCs

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) or cancer initiating cells (CICs) maintain self-renewal and multilineage differentiation properties of various tumors, as well as the cellular heterogeneity consisting of several subpopulations within tumors. CSCs display the malignant phenotype, self-renewal ability, altered genomic stability, specific epigenetic signature, and most of the time can be phenotyped by cell surface markers (e.g., CD133, CD24, and CD44). Numerous studies support the concept that non-stem cancer cells (non-CSCs) are sensitive to cancer therapy while CSCs are relatively resistant to treatment. In glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs), there is clonal heterogeneity at the genetic level with distinct tumorigenic potential, and defined GSC marker expression resulting from clonal evolution which is likely to influence disease progression and response to treatment. Another level of complexity in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) tumors is the dynamic equilibrium between GSCs and differentiated non-GSCs, and the potential for non-GSCs to revert (dedifferentiate) to GSCs due to epigenetic alteration which confers phenotypic plasticity to the tumor cell population. Moreover, exposure of the differentiated GBM cells to therapeutic doses of temozolomide (TMZ) or ionizing radiation (IR) increases the GSC pool both in vitro and in vivo. This review describes various subtypes of GBM, discusses the evolution of CSC models and epigenetic plasticity, as well as interconversion between GSCs and differentiated non-GSCs, and offers strategies to potentially eliminate GSCs.

Agomelatine or ramelteon as treatment adjuncts in glioblastoma and other M1- or M2-expressing cancers

The impressive but sad list of over forty clinical studies using various cytotoxic chemotherapies published in the last few years has failed to increase median survival of glioblastoma beyond two years after diagnosis. In view of this apparent brick wall, adjunctive non-cytotoxic growth factor blocking drugs are being tried, as in the CUSP9* protocol. A related theme is searching for agonists at growth inhibiting receptors. One such dataset is that of melatonin agonism at M1 or M2 receptors found on glioblastoma cells, being a negative regulator of these cells’ growth. Melatonin itself is an endogenous hormone, but when used as an exogenously administered drug it has many disadvantages. Agomelatine, marketed as an antidepressant, and ramelteon, marketed as a treatment for insomnia, are currently-available melatonin receptor agonists. These melatonin receptor agonists have significant advantages over the natural ligand: longer half-life, better oral absorption, and higher affinity to melatonin receptors. They have an eminently benign side effect profile. As full agonists they should function to inhibit glioblastoma growth, as demonstrated for melatonin. A potentially helpful ancillary attribute of melatonergic agonists in glioblastoma treatment is an increase in interleukin-2 synthesis, expected, at least partially, to reverse some of the immunosuppression associated with glioblastoma.