Personality Traits: Hierarchically Organized Systems

The Role of Anger Expression in Unmet Expectations and Depressive Symptoms

Background and Objectives. Depression is associated with unmet relational expectations, but little is known about how both partners experience meeting expectations and how this relates to anger expression and depressive symptoms. The aim of study 1 was to explore the role of anger expression in explaining the link between relational expectations and depression using the actor-partner interdependence mediation model. Additionally, social expectations beyond romantic relationships are associated with societal demands. Study 2 is aimed at investigating the role of anger expression in the relationship between internalized social demands (i.e., outer self-awareness) and depressive symptoms. Design and Methods. Online self-report data were collected from N = 194 romantic partners (97 dyads) in study 1 and N = 407 individuals in study 2. Results. In study 1, unmet expectations were associated with both actor and partner effects on depressive symptoms and anger expression. In particular, inwardly directed anger was linked to depressive symptoms in the case of the individual experiencing unmet expectations, whereas outwardly directed anger predicted such symptoms in the case of the partner's unmet expectations. In study 2, there was a positive association between outer self-awareness and directing anger inwards and outwards, which was linked to higher depressive symptoms. Furthermore, while directing anger inwards seemed to be a universal mechanism underlying the association, the interpersonal mechanism (i.e., directing anger outwards) was found to be dependent on gender.

Personality coherence as a personality dynamics-related concept

Extant theoretical models of personality coherence/incoherence do not sufficiently address the challenge of explaining personality coherence dynamics and the role of psychological mechanisms, including temperament and attention. To overcome these limitations, the Complex-System Approach to Personality (C-SAP) postulates that personality coherence is a within-person structure that arises from the functional consistency/inconsistency between personality traits/types, underlain by specific attentional and temperament mechanisms that have integrative and regulatory potential. The dominant (reactive, regulative) function of stimulation processing in temperament types is the foundation for assessing personality coherence. This paper presents a revised, fine-grained model of personality coherence - originally arising from the C-SAP - that is enriched by a focus on personality coherence dynamics in relation to behavioral consistency. The methodological principles necessary for studying personality coherence dynamics are outlined in detail. This paper also addresses: (i) research methods for relating personality coherence/incoherence to behavioral consistency/inconsistency, and (ii) situational contexts that are important to these personality dynamics. In addition, personality coherence dynamics in relation to the self and character and the impact of the C-SAP assumption that behaviors are more stable than traits/types on the relation between personality coherence and behavioral consistency are discussed.

Conceptualizing and Studying Characteristics, Units, and Fits of Persons and Environments: A Coherent Synthesis

Based on a perspective on personality coherence as the extent to which personality-relevant characteristics are differentiated and integrated within a person in his or her environment, we propose a synthesis that builds on and harmonizes existing and partly conflicting theories, methodological approaches, and empirical findings. This understanding of personality coherence needs clear definitions of person and environment characteristics. We define traits as characteristics of the person, adaptations as characteristics of the person-in-contexts, and states as characteristics of the person-in-situations. Thus, our synthesis involves concepts of environments and person-environment units. Next, we provide testable criteria to differentiate characteristics of persons from characteristics of person-environment units and to identify dispositional traits for a narrow-sense perspective on personality coherence. We raise awareness of the importance of fit between (profiles of) person and environment characteristics for an understanding of the integrated uniqueness of persons in their environments. We outline implications of this broader perspective on personality coherence for personality development, self-regulation, social integration, well-being, and psychological interventions. Lastly, we conclude that the analysis of an individual’s uniqueness and personality differences requires information about how well-defined, well-differentiated, well-integrated, and well-operationalized person(ality) variables are actually expressed in, or interact and transact with, the individual environment.

Personality coherence in acts and texts: Searching for coherence within and beyond trait categories

This paper reports two studies that explore complementary aspects of personality coherence. Study 1 addressed cross-situational coherence in contextualized psychological response. Idiographically-tailored methods assessed individuals’ (i) beliefs about their personal attributes, (ii) subjective “mappings” of these attributes to everyday circumstances, and (iii) self-reported contextualized action tendencies. A novel index of idiographic–nomothetic relations gauged the degree to which the idiographic methods yield unique information. Participants’ mappings commonly deviated from the structure of nomothetic trait categories; people often grouped together contextualized action tendencies traditionally associated with different trait categories. The idiographic mappings predicted cross-situational coherence in action tendencies. Study 2 asked whether the contextualization of personal qualities would be evident when people merely are asked to describe their personal attributes in natural language. Participants wrote narratives describing positive and negative qualities. Narratives were coded for the presence of three linguistic features: conditional statements, probabilistic statements, and personality trait inconsistencies. All three occurred frequently. Furthermore, they co-occurred; among participants who described trait-inconsistent attributes, the large majority spontaneously cited conditions in which these attributes are manifested. People who recognize that they possess inconsistent personal qualities may nonetheless attain a coherent understanding of themselves by spontaneously developing a contextually-embedded sense of self.

Prenatal maternal personality as an early predictor of vulnerable parenting style

Perinatal mental health problems, particularly depression, are prevalent and have been a central focus of prevention initiatives. The greater proportion of ongoing annual perinatal mental health economic cost burdens relate to children. A key linking mechanism is mother-infant relationship quality. Perinatal depression symptoms are typically transient. However, personality style, including interpersonal sensitivity, is a more stable construct and predicts proneness to depression and common mental disorders. Building on our previous work, the objective of the present study is to examine the association between specific dimensions of prenatal interpersonal sensitivity and postpartum mother-infant relationship quality in the context of prenatal depression symptoms. We analysed data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Interpersonal sensitivity and depression symptoms were measured at 18 weeks gestation. In a randomly selected 10% subsample of the ALSPAC cohort, mother-infant interaction was measured through standard observation at 12 months postpartum. For the subsample that had complete data at all time points (n = 812), multiple regression models examined prenatal interpersonal sensitivity dimensions predicting postpartum mother-infant relationship quality, accounting for depression symptoms. Two dimensions of maternal interpersonal sensitivity modestly predicted mother-infant relationship quality at 12 months postpartum and remained robust when we controlled for depression symptoms. The interpersonal sensitivity subscales were significantly associated with prenatal depression symptoms but more consistently and robustly predicted postnatal mother-infant interaction quality. The inclusion of personality measures may strengthen prenatal mental health assessment to identify vulnerability to suboptimal mother-infant relationship quality.

Status of the Trait Concept in Contemporary Personality Psychology: Are the Old Questions Still the Burning Questions?

This special issue of Journal of Personality addresses one of the cardinal concerns of personality psychology, namely, the status of traits in contemporary personality science. Trait theory is a major scientific model for personality explanation and research. Although there have been critiques of traits, typically formulated from the point of view of the social-cognitive perspective, the trait approach can be viewed as a continuously developing paradigm. However, personality psychology persists in tackling burning questions concerning the status of traits that need to be answered. Modern trait approaches confront problems such as constructing an objective personality traits assessment, connecting the descriptive traits with explanatory processes, applying traits for understanding the individual person, clarifying the relation of traits to behavior, and using traits for solving cardinal concerns of personality psychology (e.g., personality organization). This special issue presents examples of contemporary trait theories that attempt to provide possible solutions to these issues and/or delineate other main issues to be resolved by future research and theorizing. We have asked contributors to portray their approach and describe in what way their trait theory continues a historic tradition and in what respect it breaks with the past and moves trait models to more mature scientific levels.

Antenatal interpersonal sensitivity as an early predictor of vulnerable mother-infant relationship quality

Maternal mental health problems in the perinatal period incur significant human and economic costs attributable to adverse child outcomes. In response, governments invest in screening for perinatal depressive symptoms. Mother-infant relationship quality (MIRQ) is a key mechanism linking maternal perinatal mental health to child outcomes. Perinatal depressive symptoms are typically transient while personality style, including interpersonal sensitivity, is a more stable construct. We have demonstrated that antenatal interpersonal sensitivity independently predicted MIRQ at 12 months postpartum. Building on our previous work, the objective of this study was to examine the associations of antenatal interpersonal sensitivity and depressive symptoms with MIRQ 1 year postnatal. A sample of 73 women attending routine antenatal care, 61 (84%) from ethnically diverse populations, were studied across the perinatal period. At ⩽26 weeks, gestation interpersonal sensitivity and depressive symptoms were measured. At 12 months, postnatal mental health and MIRQ was assessed in 35 of the mother-infant dyads. We found no significant statistical association between antenatal interpersonal sensitivity and depressive symptoms with postnatal MIRQ. Interpersonal sensitivity (r = -.24) showed weak association with MIRQ. Depressive symptom scores were not associated (r =-.01). Maternal sensitivity assessment (MIRQ) using the CARE-Index identified low mean scores signifying low levels of maternal sensitivity (potential range 0-14; mean score = 6.3). We cautiously suggest that the findings raise questions about the presentation and assessment of perinatal mental health status among ethnically diverse populations and scoping of parenting support needs within this population.

Associations between prenatal maternal mental health indices and mother-infant relationship quality 6 to 18 months' postpartum: A systematic review

Maternal mental disorders can significantly impact on children's psychosocial and psychological development, incurring substantial ongoing economic and personal costs. A key mediating mechanism is mother-infant relationship quality (MIRQ). Research studies and perinatal mental health screening initiatives have predominantly focused on depressive symptoms and perinatal depression as predictors of MIRQ. While maternal depression is associated with suboptimal MIRQ, the findings have not been consistent. Personality characteristics are associated with parenting and proneness to depression, presenting a potential addition to prenatal mental health assessment. We conducted a systematic review of studies that have examined the link between prenatal depressive symptoms and/or personality characteristics with postnatal MIRQ. Our findings suggest that both maternal personality traits and depressive symptoms measured in early pregnancy are associated with postnatal MIRQ. A measure of personality characteristics may enhance prenatal mental health assessment, affording opportunities for targeted intervention commencing in pregnancy to improve MIRQ, parenting, maternal mental health outcomes, and infant psychosocial and psychological development, and thereby contributing to the reduction of human and economic cost burdens.

Structure of Affect in Types of Anxiety and Depression

Abstract. Although anxiety and depression are treated as separate conditions, the literature concerning their affective functioning is inconclusive. To address this issue, we analyzed types of anxiety (arousal and apprehension) and depression (valence and anhedonic). We hypothesized that the similarities and differences in the structure of affect would be related to the specific structural components and functions (reactive or regulative) of the types. We assessed the valence (negative and positive affect) and content (specific emotions) of affect by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule – Expanded Form (PANAS-X) in 1,632 participants from a general population. Regression analyses showed that the anxiety and depression types (measured by Anxiety and Depression Questionnaire) can be differentiated by the content of affect, but not its valence: Fear was characteristic for anxiety, especially the arousal anxiety. Valence depression was primarily related to hostility, while anhedonic depression was predicted by sadness, guilt, and lowered joviality. Moreover, as expected, regulative emotions (e.g., joviality) were stronger predictors of the regulative apprehension anxiety and anhedonic depression, while the more reactive fear was more strongly related to the reactive arousal anxiety than to regulative apprehension anxiety. These results confirm that the structure of affect is related to the structure and functions of anxiety and depression types.

Some Metatheoretical Principles for Personality Neuroscience

Theories in personality neuroscience must aim to be consistent with several levels of explanation. If we view personality traits as constructs located only at the psychological level, we must still make their explanations compatible with observations and theories at lower levels, particularly with what we know at the neural level. If we view personality traits as constructs located only at the neural level, we will still need to predict their emergent effects at the psychological level. Personality theory at present treats traits as psychological-level constructs, with even the recent neurally oriented Cybernetic Big Five Theory specified in terms of a "conceptual nervous system" and not requiring complete or immediate translation into neural mechanisms. Here, we argue for the existence of phylogenetically old, neural-level traits that are substantially conserved across many vertebrate species. We first ask what known mechanisms control trait-like properties of neural systems: Focusing on hormones, the GABAA receptor, and amine neurotransmitter systems. We derive from what we know about these sources of neuronal modulation some metatheoretical principles to guide the future development of those aspects of personality theory, starting with neural-level trait constructs and drawing implications for higher-level trait psychology observations. Current descriptive approaches such as the Big Five are an essential precursor to personality neuroscience, but may not map one-to-one to the mechanisms and constructs of a neuroscience-based approach to traits.

Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies in Anxiety and Depression Understood as Types of Personality

The identification of distinctive and overlapping features of anxiety and depression remains an important scientific problem. Currently, the literature does not allow to determine stable similarities and differences in the use of cognitive emotion regulation strategies (CERS) in anxiety and depression, especially concerning the adaptive strategies. Consequently, the aim of this study was to identify the overlapping and distinctive patterns of CERS use in the recently proposed types of anxiety and depression in a general population. In this dimensional approach, types of anxiety and depression are considered as personality types and distinguished based on their specific structural composition and functional role (reactive or regulative) in stimulation processing. 1,632 participants from a representative sample completed the Anxiety and Depression Questionnaire (measuring the Arousal and Apprehension Types of anxiety and the Valence and Anhedonic Types of depression) and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Regression analyses were conducted with the affective types as predictors. The co-occurrence of the types was accounted for in order to examine their independent relationships with the CERS. We found that reactive arousal anxiety was not related to any strategies, while regulative apprehension anxiety primarily predicted the use of rumination, which is presumably related to the type's cognitive structural components. The strategy specific to reactive valence depression was other-blame (as predicted by the high negative affect in its structure), and the regulative, most structurally complex anhedonic depression predicted the use of the largest number of strategies, including the adaptive ones. The relationships between the types of depression and self-blame and refocus on planning were moderated by sex but the effects were small. These findings fit into the current trend of exploring the shared and specific features of anxiety and depression, which might facilitate their differentiation by identifying CERS that are characteristic for the specific types. This information can be used for supporting diagnosis and targeting selected strategies in therapy both in clinical and non-clinical populations.