Potentiation of antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of cultured wild ginseng root extract through probiotic fermentation

Application of microorganisms in Panax ginseng: cultivation of plants, and biotransformation and bioactivity of key component ginsenosides

Panax ginseng is a precious Chinese medicinal plant with a long growth cycle and high medicinal value. Therefore, it is of great significance to explore effective ways to increase its yield and main active substance content to reduce the cost of ginseng, which is widely used in food and clinical applications. Here, we review the key roles of microorganisms in the biological control of ginseng diseases, enhancement of ginseng yield, biotransformation of ginsenosides, and augmentation of ginsenoside bioactivity. The application of microorganisms in P. ginseng faces multiple challenges, including the need for further exploration of efficient microbial strain resources used in the cultivation of ginseng and biotransformation of ginsenosides, lack of microbial application in large-scale field cultivation of ginseng, and unclear mechanism of microbial transformation of ginsenosides. This review provides a deeper understanding of the applications of microorganisms in P. ginseng.

Anti-proliferation and apoptosis induced via the mTOR/PGC-1α signaling pathway in trophoblast cells of miscarriage

Miscarriage is a common complication during early pregnancy and affects approximately 10%-15% of all pregnant women. Several studies have reported that the abnormal expression of mitochondrial oxidative stress-related genes might be involved in the occurrence and progression of miscarriage. The present study attempted to uncover the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) in miscarriage chorionic villous tissue. The hypothesis that PGC-1α is crucial for glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation during early pregnancy was tested. The results showed that the mRNA and protein levels of PGC-1α were significantly increased in the miscarriage chorionic villous tissues compared with the artificial selective abortion group, and that the expression was regulated by mTOR in knockdown and overexpression of mTOR in HTR8 cell lines. PGC-1α also promoted mitochondrion oxidative phosphorylation but inhibited glycolysis process. In addition, PGC-1α could drive ROS production, reduce mitochondrial membrane potential and block NADPH synthesis, resulting in cell cycle arrest and cell apoptosis, eventually leading to miscarriage. These results suggested that the aberrant expression of PGC-1α is involved in the etiology of early miscarriage, providing new perspectives regarding the mechanisms of miscarriage and a potential therapeutic target for miscarriage.

Ginseng intake and Alzheimer disease-specific cognition in older adults according to apolipoprotein 4 allele status

Background

The probable association among ginseng intake, Alzheimer's disease (AD)-specific cognition, and apolipoprotein ε4 (APOE4) remains poorly investigated. Hence, we examined the association between ginseng intake and AD-specific cognition in older adults under the moderating effect of APOE4 status.

Methods

This study enrolled 160 adults aged 65-90 years without dementia. All participants underwent comprehensive dietary and clinical assessments including ginseng intake, AD-related cognition (i.e., delayed episodic memory, as the earliest cognitive change in AD), and non-memory cognition for comparative purposes.

Results

Ginseng intake was associated with higher delayed episodic memory, but not non-memory cognition, compared to no ginseng intake. The interaction between ginseng intake and APOE4 status had a significant effect on delayed episodic memory. Subgroup analyses showed that ginseng intake was associated with higher delayed episodic memory in the APOE4-negative but not the APOE4-positive subgroup. The benefits of ginseng intake on delayed episodic memory were prominent in the high duration (≥5 years) and midlife onset (<65 years) groups.

Conclusion

Our study of older adults with no dementia suggests that ginseng intake (with high duration and midlife onset) had a beneficial effect on AD-specific cognitive decline, i.e., the delayed episodic memory. In addition, APOE4 status moderates the association between ginseng intake status and AD-specific cognitive decline.

Improved Antioxidative, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antimelanogenic Effects of Fermented Hydroponic Ginseng with Bacillus Strains

Compared with traditionally cultured ginseng, hydroponic ginseng (HG) contains more remarkable bioactive compounds, which are known to exert diverse functional effects. This study aimed to enhance the multifunctional effects, including the antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antimelanogenic effects, exhibited by fermented HG with Bacillus strains, such as Bacillus subtilis KU43, Bacillus subtilis KU201, Bacillus polyfermenticus SCD, and Bacillus polyfermenticus KU3, at 37 °C for 48 h. After fermentation by B. subtilis KU201, the antioxidant activity, determined using ABTS and FRAP assays, increased from 25.30% to 51.34% and from 132.10% to 236.27%, respectively, accompanied by the enhancement of the phenolic compounds and flavonoids. The inflammation induced in RAW 264.7 cells by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was ameliorated with fermented HG, which regulated the nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and proinflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6). The treatment with fermented HG inhibited the melanin accumulation in B16F10 cells induced by α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) by controlling the concentrations of melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity. These results indicate that the HG exhibited stronger antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antimelanogenic effects after fermentation. Consequently, HG fermented by Bacillus strains can potentially be used as an ingredient in cosmetological and pharmaceutical applications.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Cultured Ginseng Roots Extract in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Mouse Macrophages and Adipocytes

Wild ginseng, Panax ginseng Meyer, is a traditional medicine widely used in Asia. Due to low reward and high costs, wild ginseng is produced by a plant cell culture technique called cultured ginseng roots (GR). The health benefits of wild ginseng have been well studied, but the potential health effects of GR are largely unknown. Thus, we investigated the role of a GR extract (GRE) on inflammatory responses. We firstly investigated the anti-inflammatory potential of GRE in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. GRE (100 μg/mL) dampened pro-inflammatory gene expression, cytokine release, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation. These anti-inflammatory responses by GRE were confirmed in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs), which showed that GRE could inhibit inflammation with the induction of antioxidant levels. LPS was recently reported to impair mitochondrial bioenergetics in mouse macrophages. We next measured the mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate (OCR), determining mitochondrial function. LPS treatment downregulated OCR; however, GRE partially restored the LPS-mediated energy homeostasis defects. Furthermore, GRE-pretreated conditioned media (CM) obtained from mouse macrophages decreased CM-mediated adipocyte inflammation. Collectively, these data suggested that GRE attenuated LPS-induced inflammation, and it might be partially involved in the protection from mitochondrial dysfunction in macrophages and adipocytes.

Integrative cancer treatment may have a survival benefit in patients with lung cancer: A retrospective cohort study from an integrative cancer center in Korea

Integrative oncology is being increasingly adopted in mainstream cancer care to strengthen anticancer effects and to control cancer-related symptoms.The objective of this study is to identify the characteristics of patients with lung cancer treated at an integrative cancer center in Korea and to determine the effects of integrative cancer treatment (ICT) on survival outcome in traditional Korean medicine (TKM).We reviewed medical records for lung cancer patients who visited a single integrative clinical setting, East-West Cancer Center, between January 2014 and December 2015. We classified the patients into groups according to their ICT and whether or not they underwent anticancer traditional Korean Medicine treatment with a multiherbal formula containing Panax notoginseng Radix, Cordyceps militaris, P ginseng C.A.Mey., and Boswellia carterii BIRDWOOD (HangAmDan-B), with a herbal formula containing Rhus verniciflua Stoke, or with cultivated wild ginseng pharmacopuncture. A descriptive analysis of the characteristics and a survival analysis using the Kaplan-Meier curves with log rank test and a Cox proportional hazard model were performed.A total of 91 patients were included, and the majority had advanced-stage cancer. Of those patients, 45.1% were in the mono-TKM group and 39.6% were integrative group. Patients with advanced stage had significantly higher mortality than patients with early stage (crude hazard ratio [HR]: 4.41, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.56-12.5; adjusted HR: 6.31, 95% CI: 1.24-32.1). In the unadjusted model, for patients in the integrative group, the mortality rate was reduced by 50% compared to mono-TKM group with statistical significance. After adjusting confounders, the mortality rate of integrative group was reduced by 6% compared to mono-TKM group, suggesting positive effect on survival probability of integrative group.The results suggest that integration of TKM and conventional cancer treatment may have survival benefits in patients with lung cancer. Even though this study has limitations including heterogeneity between treatment groups, the study results suggest that ICT has positive effect on survival probability. To clarify the impacts of ICT for lung cancer and other cancers on survival outcome, further prospective study with a rigorous study design is required in multiclinical setting.

Application of microwave-irradiation technique in deglycosylation of ginsenosides for improving apoptosis induction in human melanoma SK-MEL-2 cells

To increase the contents of medicinally effective ginsenosides, we used high-temperature and high-pressure thermal processing of ginseng by exposing it to microwave irradiation. To determine the anti-melanoma effect, the malignant melanoma SK-MEL-2 cell line was treated with an extract of microwave-irradiated ginseng. Microwave irradiation caused changes in the ginsenoside contents: the amounts of ginsenosides Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd were disappeared, while those of less polar ginsenosides, such as Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1, were increased. In particular, the contents of Rk1 and Rg5 markedly increased. Melanoma cells treated with the microwave-irradiated ginseng extract showed markedly increased cell death. The results indicate that the microwave-irradiated ginseng extract induced melanoma cell death via the apoptotic pathway and that the cytotoxic effect of the microwave-irradiated ginseng extract is attributable to the increased contents of specific ginsenosides.

The effectiveness of anticancer traditional Korean medicine treatment on the survival in patients with lung, breast, gastric, colorectal, hepatic, uterine, or ovarian cancer: A prospective cohort study protocol

Although anticancer traditional Korean medicine treatment (ACTKMT) is widely applied to patients with cancer together with, or in place of, conventional cancer treatment in Korea, the cohort evidence on its clinical effects is lacking. Therefore, this prospective cohort study is designed to evaluate the effect of ACTKMT on the survival and the clinical outcomes for patients being treated at an integrative oncology clinic.This is a single center, prospective cohort study of patients within 1 year after the diagnosis of primary lung, breast, gastric, colorectal, hepatic, uterine, or ovarian cancer. The event-free survival, disease-free survival/progression-free survival, the overall survival, the results of blood tests, and telomere-length information will be compared between patients receiving and patients not receiving a key ACTKMT (HangAmDan-B1, Geonchil-jung, and/or cultivated wild ginseng pharmacopuncture), and the correlation between the use of the key ACTKMT and the prognosis will be identified considering other risk factors.This study has received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board, Dunsan Korean Medicine Hospital of Daejeon University (No. DJDSKH-16-BM-09). The results of this study will be published in a peer-reviewed journal.Clinical Research Information Service: KCT0002160.

Enhanced Rg3 negatively regulates Th1 cell responses

Background

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG; Panax ginseng Meyer) is a widely used medicinal herb known to exert various immune modulatory functions. KRG and one of its purified components, ginsenoside Rg3, are known to possess anti-inflammatory activities. How they impact helper T cell-mediated responses is not fully explored. In this study, we attempted to evaluate the effect of KRG extract (KRGE) and ginsenoside Rg3 on Th1 cell responses.

Methods

Using well-characterized T cell in vitro differentiation systems, we examined the effects of KRGE or enhanced Rg3 on the Th1-inducing cytokine production from dendritic cells (DC) and the naïve CD4⁺ T cells differentiation to Th1 cells. Furthermore, we examined the change of Th1 cell population in the intestine after treatment of enhanced Rg3. The influence of KRGE or enhanced Rg3 on Th1 cell differentiation was evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction.

Results

KRGE significantly inhibited the production level of IL-12 from DCs and subsequent Th1 cell differentiation. Similarly, enhanced Rg3 significantly suppressed the expression of interferon gamma (IFNγ) and T-bet in T cells under Th1-skewing condition. Consistent with these effects in vitro, oral administration of enhanced Rg3 suppressed the frequency of Th1 cells in the Peyer's patch and lamina propria cells in vivo.

Conclusion

Enhanced Rg3 negatively regulates the differentiation of Th1 cell in vitro and Th1 cell responses in the gut in vivo, providing fundamental basis for the use of this agent to treat Th1-related diseases.

Ginseng Berry Extract Attenuates Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Acute and Chronic Colitis

This study investigates the in vivo functions of ginseng berry extract (GB) as a therapy for dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis. C57BL/6 mice were given drinking water containing DSS (3%) for eight days to induce acute colitis. At the same time, the mice received an oral dose of GB (50 mg/kg) once daily. The GB-treated mice were less susceptible to the development of acute colitis than were control mice treated with saline, as determined by weight loss, disease activity, and colon histology. The administration of GB to DSS-treated mice also reduced the numbers and inhibited the activation of colon-infiltrating T cells, neutrophils, intestinal CD103(-)CD11c⁺ dendritic cells (cDCs), and macrophages. In addition, GB treatment promoted the migration of CD103⁺CD11c⁺ cDCs and expansion of Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells in the colons of DSS-treated mice. Similarly, in the DSS-induced chronic colitis model, GB treatment improved the macroscopic and histological appearance of the colon wall when compared to untreated control mice, as indicated by longer colon length and lower histological scores. This is the first report to show that oral administration of GB suppresses immune activation and protects against experimentally induced colitis.

Effect of Amino Acids on the Generation of Ginsenoside Rg3 Epimers by Heat Processing and the Anticancer Activities of Epimers in A2780 Human Ovarian Cancer Cells

Ginsenosides are the active components of Panax ginseng. Many research studies indicate that these deglycosylated, less-polar ginsenosides have better bioactivity than the major ginsenosides. In the present study, we sought to verify the enhanced anticancer effect of P. ginseng extract after undergoing the Maillard reaction as well as elucidate the underlying mechanism of action. The effects of 9 amino acids were tested; among them, the content of 20(S)-Rg3 in the ginseng extract increased to more than 30, 20, and 20% when processed with valine, arginine, and alanine, respectively, compared with that after normal heat processing. The ginseng extract that was heat-processed with arginine exhibited the most potent inhibitory effect on A2780 ovarian cancer cell proliferation. Therefore, the generation of 20(S)-Rg3 was suggested to be involved in this effect. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of 20(S)-Rg3 on A2780 cell proliferation was significantly stronger than that of 20(R)-Rg3. Protein expression levels of cleaved caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, and PARP in the A2780 ovarian cancer cells markedly increased, whereas the expression of BID decreased after 20(S)-Rg3 treatment. Therefore, we confirmed that the anticancer effects of the products of ginseng that was heat-processed with arginine are mediated mainly via the generation of the less-polar ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3.

ZnO Nanoparticles Treatment Induces Apoptosis by Increasing Intracellular ROS Levels in LTEP-a-2 Cells

Owing to the wide use of novel nanoparticles (NPs) such as zinc oxide (ZnO) in all aspects of life, toxicological research on ZnO NPs is receiving increasing attention in these days. In this study, the toxicity of ZnO NPs in a human pulmonary adenocarcinoma cell line LTEP-a-2 was tested in vitro. Log-phase cells were exposed to different levels of ZnO NPs for hours, followed by colorimetric cell viability assay using tetrazolium salt and cell survival rate assay using trypan blue dye. Cell morphological changes were observed by Giemsa staining and light microscopy. Apoptosis was detected by using fluorescence microscopy and caspase-3 activity assay. Both intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced glutathione (GSH) were examined by a microplate-reader method. Results showed that ZnO NPs (≥ 0.01 μg/mL) significantly inhibited proliferation (P < 0.05) and induced substantial apoptosis in LTEP-a-2 cells after 4 h of exposure. The intracellular ROS level rose up to 30-40% corresponding to significant depletion (approximately 70-80%) in GSH content in LTEP-a-2 cells (P < 0.05), suggesting that ZnO NPs induced apoptosis mainly through increased ROS production. This study elucidates the toxicological mechanism of ZnO NPs in human pulmonary adenocarcinoma cells and provides reference data for application of nanomaterials in the environment.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng supplementation on dry eye syndrome in glaucoma patients - A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Many patients with glaucoma have difficulty using antiglaucoma eye drops because of dry eye symptom. In this prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we evaluated the effect of Korean Red Ginseng on dry eye syndrome in patients with glaucoma treated with antiglaucoma eye drops.

METHODS

Forty-nine participants were allocated to the Korean Red Ginseng (3 g/day; n = 24) or placebo (n = 25) groups for 8 weeks. Tear film stability, fluorescein corneal staining, conjunctival hyperemia, tear production, grade of meibomian gland dysfunction, and dry eye questionnaire (Ocular Surface Disease Index) were evaluated at baseline and on completion of the treatment.

RESULTS

Almost all patients displayed dry eye symptoms and signs at baseline. After the 8-week intervention, Korean Red Ginseng supplementation significantly improved the tear film stability and total Ocular Surface Disease Index score, as compared to placebo (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Korean Red Ginseng supplementation may provide an additional treatment option for dry eye and patients with glaucoma using antiglaucoma eye drops.

Neuroprotective Effects of Jitai Tablet, a Traditional Chinese Medicine, on the MPTP-Induced Acute Model of Parkinson's Disease: Involvement of the Dopamine System

Jitai tablet (JTT) is a traditional Chinese medicine used to treat neuropsychiatric disorders. We previously demonstrated that JTT treatment led to increased level of dopamine transporter (DAT) in the striatum, thus indicating that JTT might have therapeutic potential for Parkinson's disease (PD), which is characterized by dysregulated dopamine (DA) transmission and decreased striatal DAT expression. The aim of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of JTT on MPTP-induced PD mice. Using locomotor activity test and rotarod test, we evaluated the effects of JTT (0.50, 0.15, or 0.05 g/kg) on MPTP-induced behavioral impairments. Tyrosine hydroxylase TH-positive neurons in the substantia nigra and DAT and dopamine D₂ receptor (D₂R) levels in the striatum were detected by immunohistochemical staining and/or autoradiography. Levels of DA and its metabolites were determined by HPLC. In MPTP-treated mice, behavioral impairments were alleviated by JTT treatment. Moreover, JTT protected against impairment of TH-positive neurons and attenuated the MPTP-induced decreases in DAT and D₂R. Finally, high dose of JTT (0.50 g/kg) inhibited the MPTP-induced increase in DA metabolism rate. Taken together, results from our present study provide evidence that JTT offers neuroprotective effects against the neurotoxicity of MPTP and thus might be a potential treatment for PD.