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Linnenbrink M, Breton G, Misra P, Pfeifle C, Dutheil JY, Tautz D. Experimental Evaluation of a Direct Fitness Effect of the De Novo Evolved Mouse Gene Pldi. Genome Biol Evol 2024; 16:evae084. [PMID: 38742287 PMCID: PMC11091481 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evae084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
De novo evolved genes emerge from random parts of noncoding sequences and have, therefore, no homologs from which a function could be inferred. While expression analysis and knockout experiments can provide insights into the function, they do not directly test whether the gene is beneficial for its carrier. Here, we have used a seminatural environment experiment to test the fitness of the previously identified de novo evolved mouse gene Pldi, which has been implicated to have a role in sperm differentiation. We used a knockout mouse strain for this gene and competed it against its parental wildtype strain for several generations of free reproduction. We found that the knockout (ko) allele frequency decreased consistently across three replicates of the experiment. Using an approximate Bayesian computation framework that simulated the data under a demographic scenario mimicking the experiment's demography, we could estimate a selection coefficient ranging between 0.21 and 0.61 for the wildtype allele compared to the ko allele in males, under various models. This implies a relatively strong selective advantage, which would fix the new gene in less than hundred generations after its emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Linnenbrink
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
- Present address: Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Gwenna Breton
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
- Present address: Clinical Genomics Gothenburg, Science for Life Laboratory, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, and Center for Medical Genomics, Department of Clinical Genetic and Genomics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Sweden
| | - Pallavi Misra
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
- Present address: Laboratory Corporation of America (LabCorp), Westborough, MA 01581, USA
| | - Christine Pfeifle
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Julien Y Dutheil
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
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Macholán M, Daniszová K, Hiadlovská Z. The Expansion of House Mouse Major Urinary Protein Genes Likely Did Not Facilitate Commensalism with Humans. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:2090. [PMID: 38003032 PMCID: PMC10671799 DOI: 10.3390/genes14112090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mouse wild-derived strains (WDSs) combine the advantages of classical laboratory stocks and wild animals, and thus appear to be promising tools for diverse biomedical and evolutionary studies. We employed 18 WDSs representing three non-synanthropic species (Mus spretus, Mus spicilegus, and M. macedonicus) and three house mouse subspecies (Mus musculus musculus, M. m. domesticus, M. m. castaneus), which are all important human commensals to explore whether the number of major urinary protein (MUP) genes and their final protein levels in urine are correlated with the level of commensalism. Contrary to expectations, the MUP copy number (CN) and protein excretion in the strains derived from M. m. castaneus, which is supposed to be the strongest commensal, were not significantly different from the non-commensal species. Regardless of an overall tendency for higher MUP amounts in taxa with a higher CN, there was no significant correlation at the strain level. Our study thus suggests that expansion of the Mup cluster, which appeared before the house mouse diversification, is unlikely to facilitate commensalism with humans in three house mouse subspecies. Finally, we found considerable variation among con(sub)specific WDSs, warning against generalisations of results based on a few strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miloš Macholán
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Laboratory of Mammalian Evolutionary Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 601 77 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Kristina Daniszová
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Laboratory of Mammalian Evolutionary Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Hiadlovská
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Laboratory of Mammalian Evolutionary Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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3
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Linnenbrink M. Competitive ability is a fast-evolving trait between house mouse populations (Mus musculus domesticus). Front Zool 2022; 19:31. [PMID: 36482394 PMCID: PMC9733109 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-022-00476-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND House mice are commensal animals with a nearly global distribution, structured into well differentiated local populations. Besides genetic differences between the populations, they have also diverged behaviorally over time, whereby it remains open how fast general behavioral characteristics can change. Here we study the competitive potential of two very recently separated populations of the Western house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) by using two different approaches-one under controlled cage conditions, the other under more natural conditions in enclosures mimicking a secondary encounter condition. RESULTS We observe a clear bias in the competitive ability towards one of the populations for both tests. The measured behavioral bias is also reflected in the number of hybrid offspring produced in the enclosures. CONCLUSION Our data suggest that key behavioral characteristics with a direct influence on relative fitness can quickly change during the evolution of populations. It seems possible that the colonization situation in Western Europe, with a rapid spread of the mice after their arrival, would have favored more competitive populations at the expansion front. The study shows the possible impact of behavioral changes on the evolution of populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Linnenbrink
- grid.419520.b0000 0001 2222 4708Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemann Str. 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
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4
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Lenschow C, Mendes ARP, Lima SQ. Hearing, touching, and multisensory integration during mate choice. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:943888. [PMID: 36247731 PMCID: PMC9559228 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.943888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Mate choice is a potent generator of diversity and a fundamental pillar for sexual selection and evolution. Mate choice is a multistage affair, where complex sensory information and elaborate actions are used to identify, scrutinize, and evaluate potential mating partners. While widely accepted that communication during mate assessment relies on multimodal cues, most studies investigating the mechanisms controlling this fundamental behavior have restricted their focus to the dominant sensory modality used by the species under examination, such as vision in humans and smell in rodents. However, despite their undeniable importance for the initial recognition, attraction, and approach towards a potential mate, other modalities gain relevance as the interaction progresses, amongst which are touch and audition. In this review, we will: (1) focus on recent findings of how touch and audition can contribute to the evaluation and choice of mating partners, and (2) outline our current knowledge regarding the neuronal circuits processing touch and audition (amongst others) in the context of mate choice and ask (3) how these neural circuits are connected to areas that have been studied in the light of multisensory integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze Lenschow
- Champalimaud Foundation, Champalimaud Research, Neuroscience Program, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Rita P Mendes
- Champalimaud Foundation, Champalimaud Research, Neuroscience Program, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Susana Q Lima
- Champalimaud Foundation, Champalimaud Research, Neuroscience Program, Lisbon, Portugal
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5
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Wei J, Liu Q, Riebel K. Generalisation of early learned tutor song preferences in female zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). Behav Processes 2022; 201:104731. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Runge JN, Lindholm AK. Experiments confirm a dispersive phenotype associated with a natural gene drive system. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:202050. [PMID: 34040786 PMCID: PMC8113913 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.202050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Meiotic drivers are genetic entities that increase their own probability of being transmitted to offspring, usually to the detriment of the rest of the organism, thus 'selfishly' increasing their fitness. In many meiotic drive systems, driver-carrying males are less successful in sperm competition, which occurs when females mate with multiple males in one oestrus cycle (polyandry). How do drivers respond to this selection? An observational study found that house mice carrying the t haplotype, a meiotic driver, are more likely to disperse from dense populations. This could help the t avoid detrimental sperm competition, because density is associated with the frequency of polyandry. However, no controlled experiments have been conducted to test these findings. Here, we confirm that carriers of the t haplotype are more dispersive, but we do not find this to depend on the local density. t-carriers with above-average body weight were particularly more likely to disperse than wild-type mice. t-carrying mice were also more explorative but not more active than wild-type mice. These results add experimental support to the previous observational finding that the t haplotype affects the dispersal phenotype in house mice, which supports the hypothesis that dispersal reduces the fitness costs of the t.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Niklas Runge
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anna K. Lindholm
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Keshavarz M, Tautz D. The imprinted lncRNA Peg13 regulates sexual preference and the sex-specific brain transcriptome in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2022172118. [PMID: 33658376 PMCID: PMC7958240 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2022172118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammalian genomes include many maternally and paternally imprinted genes. Most of these are also expressed in the brain, and several have been implicated in regulating specific behavioral traits. Here, we have used a knockout approach to study the function of Peg13, a gene that codes for a fast-evolving lncRNA (long noncoding RNA) and is part of a complex of imprinted genes on chromosome 15 in mice and chromosome 8 in humans. Mice lacking the 3' half of the transcript look morphologically wild-type but show distinct behavioral differences. They lose interest in the opposite sex, instead displaying a preference for wild-type animals of the same sex. Further, they show a higher level of anxiety, lowered activity and curiosity, and a deficiency in pup retrieval behavior. Brain RNA expression analysis reveals that genes involved in the serotonergic system, formation of glutamatergic synapses, olfactory processing, and estrogen signaling-as well as more than half of the other known imprinted genes-show significant expression changes in Peg13-deficient mice. Intriguingly, these pathways are differentially affected in the sexes, resulting in male and female brains of Peg13-deficient mice differing more from each other than those of wild-type mice. We conclude that Peg13 is part of a developmental pathway that regulates the neurobiology of social and sexual interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Keshavarz
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
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8
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Moreira L, Zinck L, Nomoto K, Lima SQ. Sexual imprinting overrides order effects during sampling of prospective mates. Curr Biol 2020; 30:R259-R260. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Abstract
Mice (Mus musculus) and rats (Rattus norvegicus) have long served as model systems for biomedical research. However, they are also excellent models for studying the evolution of populations, subspecies, and species. Within the past million years, they have spread in various waves across large parts of the globe, with the most recent spread in the wake of human civilization. They have developed into commensal species, but have also been able to colonize extreme environments on islands free of human civilization. Given that ample genomic and genetic resources are available for these species, they have thus also become ideal mammalian systems for evolutionary studies on adaptation and speciation, particularly in the combination with the rapid developments in population genomics. The chapter provides an overview of the systems and their history, as well as of available resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian K Ullrich
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany.
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
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10
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Gale TJ, Garratt M, Brooks RC. Female mice seek refuge from castrated males, but not intact or vasectomized males, mitigating a socially-induced glucocorticoid response. Physiol Behav 2019; 211:112678. [PMID: 31505190 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Sexual conflict may be manifested during social interactions, shaping the costs of reproduction in sexually reproducing species. This conflict, and the physical necessity of intromission, can intensify the already costly nature of reproduction for female mammals. To identify and partition the costs that males inflict on females during mating and reproduction, we paired female mice with either other females or castrated, vasectomised, or intact (sham-vasectomised) males, thus manipulating exposure to social mating behavior and costs arising from fertilization. We also provided females with refuges where males could not enter, to test whether females show avoidance or attraction to males of different gonadal status expected to exhibit different levels of social behavior. We found that females paired with vasectomised and castrated males spent the most time in their refuge. Females housed with castrated males also had increased glucocorticoid levels, an effect that was mitigated when females could retreat from these males to a refuge. This suggests that females actively refuge from castrated males, and that housing with such males is sufficient to generate an increased glucocorticoid response. Our results show that females choose to refuge from males depending on the partner's gonadal status, choices that are linked to social induced stress responses but not exposure to male mating behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teagan J Gale
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences (BEES), the University of New South Wales, High Street, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Michael Garratt
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences (BEES), the University of New South Wales, High Street, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia; Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Robert C Brooks
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences (BEES), the University of New South Wales, High Street, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia
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11
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Krebs R, Linnenbrink M, Guenther A. Validating standardised personality tests under semi‐natural conditions in wild house mice (
Mus musculus domesticus
). Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Krebs
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology Plön Germany
| | | | - Anja Guenther
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology Plön Germany
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12
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Linnenbrink M, von Merten S. No speed dating please! Patterns of social preference in male and female house mice. Front Zool 2017; 14:38. [PMID: 28747988 PMCID: PMC5525247 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-017-0224-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In many animal species, interactions between individuals of different sex often occur in the context of courtship and mating. During these interactions, a specific mating partner can be chosen. By discriminating potential mates according to specific characteristics, individuals can increase their evolutionary fitness in terms of reproduction and offspring survival. In this study, we monitored the partner preference behaviour of female and male wild house mice (Mus musculus domesticus) from populations in Germany (G) and France (F) in a controlled cage setup for 5 days and six nights. We analysed the effects of individual factors (e.g. population origin and sex) on the strength of preference (selectivity), as well as dyadic factors (e.g. neutral genetic distance and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) dissimilarity) that direct partner preferences. RESULTS Selectivity was stronger in mice with a pure population background than mixed individuals. Furthermore, female mice with a father from the German population had stronger selectivity than other mice. In this group, we found a preference for partners with a larger dissimilarity of their father's and their partner's MHC, as assessed by sequencing the H2-Eß locus. In all mice, selectivity followed a clear temporal pattern: it was low in the beginning and reached its maximum only after a whole day in the experiment. After two days, mice seemed to have chosen their preferred partner, as this choice was stable for the remaining four days in the experiment. CONCLUSIONS Our study supports earlier findings that mate choice behaviour in wild mice can be paternally influenced. In our study, preference seems to be potentially associated with paternal MHC distance. To explain this, we propose familial imprinting as the most probable process for information transfer from father to offspring during the offspring's early phase of life, which possibly influences its future partner preferences. Furthermore, our experiments show that preferences can change after the first day of encounter, which implies that extended observation times might be required to obtain results that allow a valid ecological interpretation.
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Harr B, Karakoc E, Neme R, Teschke M, Pfeifle C, Pezer Ž, Babiker H, Linnenbrink M, Montero I, Scavetta R, Abai MR, Molins MP, Schlegel M, Ulrich RG, Altmüller J, Franitza M, Büntge A, Künzel S, Tautz D. Genomic resources for wild populations of the house mouse, Mus musculus and its close relative Mus spretus. Sci Data 2016; 3:160075. [PMID: 27622383 PMCID: PMC5020872 DOI: 10.1038/sdata.2016.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild populations of the house mouse (Mus musculus) represent the raw genetic material for the classical inbred strains in biomedical research and are a major model system for evolutionary biology. We provide whole genome sequencing data of individuals representing natural populations of M. m. domesticus (24 individuals from 3 populations), M. m. helgolandicus (3 individuals), M. m. musculus (22 individuals from 3 populations) and M. spretus (8 individuals from one population). We use a single pipeline to map and call variants for these individuals and also include 10 additional individuals of M. m. castaneus for which genomic data are publically available. In addition, RNAseq data were obtained from 10 tissues of up to eight adult individuals from each of the three M. m. domesticus populations for which genomic data were collected. Data and analyses are presented via tracks viewable in the UCSC or IGV genome browsers. We also provide information on available outbred stocks and instructions on how to keep them in the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Harr
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Emre Karakoc
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Rafik Neme
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Meike Teschke
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Christine Pfeifle
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Željka Pezer
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Hiba Babiker
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Miriam Linnenbrink
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Inka Montero
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Rick Scavetta
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Mohammad Reza Abai
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1417613151, Iran
| | - Marta Puente Molins
- Laboratorio de Anatomía Animal, Departamento de Biología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Vigo, 36200 Vigo, Spain
| | - Mathias Schlegel
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute for Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Janine Altmüller
- Cologne Center for Genomics (CCG), University of Cologne, Weyertal 115b, 50931 Cologne, Germany.,Institute of Human Genetics, Universitätsklinik Köln, Kerpener Str. 34, 50931 Köln, Germany
| | - Marek Franitza
- Cologne Center for Genomics (CCG), University of Cologne, Weyertal 115b, 50931 Cologne, Germany.,Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Anna Büntge
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Sven Künzel
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, August-Thienemanstrasse 2, 24306 Plön, Germany
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Perez JD, Rubinstein ND, Dulac C. New Perspectives on Genomic Imprinting, an Essential and Multifaceted Mode of Epigenetic Control in the Developing and Adult Brain. Annu Rev Neurosci 2016; 39:347-84. [PMID: 27145912 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian evolution entailed multiple innovations in gene regulation, including the emergence of genomic imprinting, an epigenetic regulation leading to the preferential expression of a gene from its maternal or paternal allele. Genomic imprinting is highly prevalent in the brain, yet, until recently, its central roles in neural processes have not been fully appreciated. Here, we provide a comprehensive survey of adult and developmental brain functions influenced by imprinted genes, from neural development and wiring to synaptic function and plasticity, energy balance, social behaviors, emotions, and cognition. We further review the widespread identification of parental biases alongside monoallelic expression in brain tissues, discuss their potential roles in dosage regulation of key neural pathways, and suggest possible mechanisms underlying the dynamic regulation of imprinting in the brain. This review should help provide a better understanding of the significance of genomic imprinting in the normal and pathological brain of mammals including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio D Perez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138;
| | - Nimrod D Rubinstein
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138;
| | - Catherine Dulac
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138;
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15
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Hoier S, Pfeifle C, von Merten S, Linnenbrink M. Communication at the Garden Fence--Context Dependent Vocalization in Female House Mice. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152255. [PMID: 27022749 PMCID: PMC4811528 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
House mice (Mus musculus) live in social groups where they frequently interact with conspecifics, thus communication (e.g. chemical and/or auditory) is essential. It is commonly known that male and female mice produce complex vocalizations in the ultrasonic range (USV) that remind of high-pitched birdsong (so called mouse song) which is mainly used in social interactions. Earlier studies suggest that mice use their USVs for mate attraction and mate choice, but they could also be used as signal during hierarchy establishment and familiarization, or other communication purposes. In this study we elucidated the vocalization behaviour of interacting female mice over an extended period of time under semi-natural conditions. We asked, if the rate or structure of female vocalization differs between different social and non-social contexts. We found that female USV is mainly used in social contexts, driven by direct communication to an unknown individual, the rate of which is decreased over time by a familiarization process. In addition we could show that female mice use two distinct types of USVs, differing in their frequency, which they use differently depending on whether they directly or indirectly communicate with another female. This supports the notion that vocalization in mice is context dependent, driven by a reasonable and yet underestimated amount of complexity that also involves the interplay between different sensory signals, like chemical and auditory cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svenja Hoier
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | | | | | - Miriam Linnenbrink
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- * E-mail: (ML); (SvM)
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16
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Vošlajerová Bímová B, Mikula O, Macholán M, Janotová K, Hiadlovská Z. Female House Mice do not Differ in Their Exploratory Behaviour from Males. Ethology 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Vošlajerová Bímová
- Laboratory of Mammalian Evolutionary Genetics; Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics; Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno Czech Republic
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology; Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Mikula
- Laboratory of Mammalian Evolutionary Genetics; Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics; Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno Czech Republic
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology; Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Miloš Macholán
- Laboratory of Mammalian Evolutionary Genetics; Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics; Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Janotová
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology; Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Hiadlovská
- Laboratory of Mammalian Evolutionary Genetics; Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics; Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno Czech Republic
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Krause L, Haubold B, Börsch-Haubold AG. Social exclusion changes histone modifications H3K4me3 and H3K27ac in liver tissue of wild house mice. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0133988. [PMID: 26267652 PMCID: PMC4534140 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild house mice form social hierarchies with aggressive males defending territories, in which females, young mice and submissive adult males share nests. In contrast, socially excluded males are barred from breeding groups, have numerous bite wounds and patches of thinning fur. Since their feeding times are often disrupted, we investigated whether social exclusion leads to changes in epigenetic marks of metabolic genes in liver tissue. We used chromatin immunoprecipitation and quantitative PCR to measure enrichment of two activating histone marks at 15 candidate loci. The epigenetic profiles of healthy males sampled from nest boxes differed significantly from the profiles of ostracized males caught outside of nests and showing bite wounds indicative of social exclusion. Enrichment of histone-3 lysine-4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) changed significantly at genes Cyp4a14, Gapdh, Nr3c1, Pck1, Ppara, and Sqle. Changes at histone-3 lysine-27 acetylation (H3K27ac) marks were detected at genes Fasn, Nr3c1, and Plin5. A principal components analysis separated the socialized from the ostracized mice. This was independent of body weight for the H3K4me3 mark, and partially dependent for H3K27ac. There was no separation, however, between healthy males that had been sampled from two different nests. A hierarchical cluster analysis also separated the two phenotypes, which was independent of body weight for both markers. Our study shows that a period of social exclusion during adult life leads to quantitative changes in histone modification patterns in mouse liver tissue. Similar epigenetic changes might occur during the development of stress-induced metabolic disorders in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Krause
- Institute of Computational Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Haubold
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | - Angelika G. Börsch-Haubold
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- * E-mail:
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18
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Pezer Ž, Harr B, Teschke M, Babiker H, Tautz D. Divergence patterns of genic copy number variation in natural populations of the house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) reveal three conserved genes with major population-specific expansions. Genome Res 2015; 25:1114-24. [PMID: 26149421 PMCID: PMC4509996 DOI: 10.1101/gr.187187.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Copy number variation represents a major source of genetic divergence, yet the evolutionary dynamics of genic copy number variation in natural populations during differentiation and adaptation remain unclear. We applied a read depth approach to genome resequencing data to detect copy number variants (CNVs) ≥1 kb in wild-caught mice belonging to four populations of Mus musculus domesticus. We complemented the bioinformatics analyses with experimental validation using droplet digital PCR. The specific focus of our analysis is CNVs that include complete genes, as these CNVs could be expected to contribute most directly to evolutionary divergence. In total, 1863 transcription units appear to be completely encompassed within CNVs in at least one individual when compared to the reference assembly. Further, 179 of these CNVs show population-specific copy number differences, and 325 are subject to complete deletion in multiple individuals. Among the most copy-number variable genes are three highly conserved genes that encode the splicing factor CWC22, the spindle protein SFI1, and the Holliday junction recognition protein HJURP. These genes exhibit population-specific expansion patterns that suggest involvement in local adaptations. We found that genes that overlap with large segmental duplications are generally more copy-number variable. These genes encode proteins that are relevant for environmental and behavioral interactions, such as vomeronasal and olfactory receptors, as well as major urinary proteins and several proteins of unknown function. The overall analysis shows that genic CNVs contribute more to population differentiation in mice than in humans and may promote and speed up population divergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Željka Pezer
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Bettina Harr
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Meike Teschke
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Hiba Babiker
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany
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19
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Lorenc A, Linnenbrink M, Montero I, Schilhabel MB, Tautz D. Genetic differentiation of hypothalamus parentally biased transcripts in populations of the house mouse implicate the Prader-Willi syndrome imprinted region as a possible source of behavioral divergence. Mol Biol Evol 2014; 31:3240-9. [PMID: 25172960 PMCID: PMC4245819 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msu257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Parentally biased expression of transcripts (genomic imprinting) in adult tissues, including the brain, can influence and possibly drive the evolution of behavioral traits. We have previously found that paternally determined cues are involved in population-specific mate choice decisions between two populations of the Western house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus). Here, we ask whether this could be mediated by genomically imprinted transcripts that are subject to fast differentiation between these populations. We focus on three organs that are of special relevance for mate choice and behavior: The vomeronasal organ (VNO), the hypothalamus, and the liver. To first identify candidate transcripts at a genome-wide scale, we used reciprocal crosses between M. m. domesticus and M. m. musculus inbred strains and RNA sequencing of the respective tissues. Using a false discovery cutoff derived from mock reciprocal cross comparisons, we find a total of 66 imprinted transcripts, 13 of which have previously not been described as imprinted. The largest number of imprinted transcripts were found in the hypothalamus; fewer were found in the VNO, and the least were found in the liver. To assess molecular differentiation and imprinting in the wild-derived M. m. domesticus populations, we sequenced the RNA of the hypothalamus from individuals of these populations. This confirmed the presence of the above identified transcripts also in wild populations and allowed us to search for those that show a high genetic differentiation between these populations. Our results identify the Ube3a–Snrpn imprinted region on chromosome 7 as a region that encompasses the largest number of previously not described transcripts with paternal expression bias, several of which are at the same time highly differentiated. For four of these, we confirmed their imprinting status via single nucleotide polymorphism-specific pyrosequencing assays with RNA from reciprocal crosses. In addition, we find the paternally expressed Peg13 transcript within the Trappc9 gene region on chromosome 15 to be highly differentiated. Interestingly, both regions have been implicated in Prader–Willi nervous system disorder phenotypes in humans. We suggest that these genomically imprinted regions are candidates for influencing the population-specific mate-choice in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lorenc
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Department Evolutionary Genetics, Plön, Germany
| | - Miriam Linnenbrink
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Department Evolutionary Genetics, Plön, Germany
| | - Inka Montero
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Department Evolutionary Genetics, Plön, Germany
| | - Markus B Schilhabel
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Department Evolutionary Genetics, Plön, Germany
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20
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Thonhauser KE, Raveh S, Penn DJ. Multiple paternity does not depend on male genetic diversity. Anim Behav 2014; 93:135-141. [PMID: 25018559 PMCID: PMC4087292 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Revised: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Polyandry is common in many species and it has been suggested that females engage in multiple mating to increase the genetic diversity of their offspring (genetic diversity hypothesis). Multiple paternity occurs in 30% of litters in wild populations of house mice, Mus musculus musculus, and multiple-sired litters are genetically more diverse than single-sired ones. Here, we aimed to test whether female house mice produce multiple-sired litters when they have the opportunity to produce genetically diverse litters. We assessed the rates of multiple paternity when females could choose to mate with two males that were genetically dissimilar to each other (i.e. nonsiblings and MHC dissimilar) compared with when females could choose to mate with two males that were genetically similar to each other (i.e. siblings and shared MHC alleles). Multiple mating may depend upon a female's own condition, and, therefore, we also tested whether inbred (from full-sibling matings) females were more likely to produce multiple-sired progeny than outbred controls. Overall we found that 29% of litters had multiple sires, but we found no evidence that females were more likely to produce multiple-sired litters when they had the opportunity to mate with genetically dissimilar males compared with controls, regardless of whether females were inbred or outbred. Thus, our findings do not support the idea that female mice increase multiple paternity when they have the opportunity to increase the genetic diversity of their offspring, as expected from the genetic diversity hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin E. Thonhauser
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Shirley Raveh
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Zoology and Evolution, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dustin J. Penn
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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21
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Börsch-Haubold AG, Montero I, Konrad K, Haubold B. Genome-wide quantitative analysis of histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation in wild house mouse liver: environmental change causes epigenetic plasticity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97568. [PMID: 24849289 PMCID: PMC4029994 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In mammals, exposure to toxic or disease-causing environments can change epigenetic marks that are inherited independently of the intrauterine environment. Such inheritance of molecular phenotypes may be adaptive. However, studies demonstrating molecular evidence for epigenetic inheritance have so far relied on extreme treatments, and are confined to inbred animals. We therefore investigated whether epigenomic changes could be detected after a non-drastic change in the environment of an outbred organism. We kept two populations of wild-caught house mice (Mus musculus domesticus) for several generations in semi-natural enclosures on either standard diet and light cycle, or on an energy-enriched diet with longer daylight to simulate summer. As epigenetic marker for active chromatin we quantified genome-wide histone-3 lysine-4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) from liver samples by chromatin immunoprecipitation and high-throughput sequencing as well as by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The treatment caused a significant increase of H3K4me3 at metabolic genes such as lipid and cholesterol regulators, monooxygenases, and a bile acid transporter. In addition, genes involved in immune processes, cell cycle, and transcription and translation processes were also differently marked. When we transferred young mice of both populations to cages and bred them under standard conditions, most of the H3K4me3 differences were lost. The few loci with stable H3K4me3 changes did not cluster in metabolic functional categories. This is, to our knowledge, the first quantitative study of an epigenetic marker in an outbred mammalian organism. We demonstrate genome-wide epigenetic plasticity in response to a realistic environmental stimulus. In contrast to disease models, the bulk of the epigenomic changes we observed were not heritable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika G. Börsch-Haubold
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Inka Montero
- Institute for Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kathryn Konrad
- Cologne Center for Genomics, University of Cologne, Köln, Germany
| | - Bernhard Haubold
- Department of Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
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22
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von Merten S, Hoier S, Pfeifle C, Tautz D. A role for ultrasonic vocalisation in social communication and divergence of natural populations of the house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus). PLoS One 2014; 9:e97244. [PMID: 24816836 PMCID: PMC4016290 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It has long been known that rodents emit signals in the ultrasonic range, but their role in social communication and mating is still under active exploration. While inbred strains of house mice have emerged as a favourite model to study ultrasonic vocalisation (USV) patterns, studies in wild animals and natural situations are still rare. We focus here on two wild derived mouse populations. We recorded them in dyadic encounters for extended periods of time to assess possible roles of USVs and their divergence between allopatric populations. We have analysed song frequency and duration, as well as spectral features of songs and syllables. We show that the populations have indeed diverged in several of these aspects and that USV patterns emitted in a mating context differ from those emitted in same sex encounters. We find that females vocalize not less, in encounters with another female even more than males. This implies that the current focus of USVs being emitted mainly by males within the mating context needs to be reconsidered. Using a statistical syntax analysis we find complex temporal sequencing patterns that could suggest that the syntax conveys meaningful information to the receivers. We conclude that wild mice use USV for complex social interactions and that USV patterns can diverge fast between populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie von Merten
- Department Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Svenja Hoier
- Department Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | - Christine Pfeifle
- Department Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
| | - Diethard Tautz
- Department Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
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23
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Thonhauser KE, Thoß M, Musolf K, Klaus T, Penn DJ. Multiple paternity in wild house mice (Mus musculus musculus): effects on offspring genetic diversity and body mass. Ecol Evol 2013; 4:200-9. [PMID: 24558575 PMCID: PMC3925383 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple mating is common in many species, but it is unclear whether multiple paternity enhances offspring genetic diversity or fitness. We conducted a survey on wild house mice (Mus musculus musculus), and we found that in 73 pregnant females, 29% of litters had multiple sires, which is remarkably similar to the 23–26% found in feral populations of Mus musculus domesticus in the USA and Australia, respectively. The question is: How has selection maintained multiple mating in these subspecies since the evolutionary divergence, ca. 2800–6000 years ago? We found no evidence that multiple paternity enhanced females’ litter size, contrary to the fertility assurance or genetic benefits hypotheses. Multiple paternity was associated with reduced mean and variance in offspring body mass, which suggests that females allocate fewer resources or that there is increased intrauterine conflict in multiple-versus single-sired litters. We found increased allelic diversity (though not heterozygosity) in multiple-sired litters, as predicted by the genetic diversity hypothesis. Finally, we found that the dams’ heterozygosity was correlated with the mean heterozygosity of their offspring in single-and multiple-sired litters, suggesting that outbred, heterozygous females were more likely to avoid inbreeding than inbred, homozygous females. Future studies are needed to examine how increased genetic diversity of litters and smaller mean (and variance) offspring body mass associated with multiple paternity affect offspring fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin E Thonhauser
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Michaela Thoß
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Kerstin Musolf
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria ; Department of Biology, Brooklyn College Brooklyn, New York, USA
| | - Teresa Klaus
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Dustin J Penn
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
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24
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Thonhauser KE, Raveh S, Hettyey A, Beissmann H, Penn DJ. Why do female mice mate with multiple males? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2013; 67:1961-1970. [PMID: 24273373 PMCID: PMC3827896 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-013-1604-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2013] [Revised: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Females often show multi-male mating (MMM), but the adaptive functions are unclear. We tested whether female house mice (Mus musculus musculus) show MMM when they can choose their mates without male coercion. We released 32 females into separate enclosures where they could choose to mate with two neighboring males that were restricted to their own territories. We also tested whether females increase MMM when the available males appeared unable to exclude intruders from their territories. To manipulate territorial intrusion, we introduced scent-marked tiles from the neighboring males into males' territories, or we rearranged tiles within males' own territories as a control. Each female was tested in treatment and control conditions and we conducted paternity analyses on the 57 litters produced. We found that 46 % of litters were multiply sired, indicating that multiple paternity is common when females can choose their mates. Intrusion did not increase multiple paternity, though multiple paternity was significantly greater in the first trial when the males were virgins compared to the second trial. Since virgin male mice are highly infanticidal, this finding is consistent with the infanticide avoidance hypothesis. We also found that multiple paternity was higher when competing males showed small differences in their amount of scent marking, suggesting that females reduce MMM when they can detect differences in males' quality. Finally, multiple paternity was associated with increased litter size but only in the intrusion treatment, which suggests that the effect of multiple paternity on offspring number is dependent on male-male interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin E Thonhauser
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Savoyenstraße 1a, 1160 Vienna, Austria
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