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Liu A, Geraldes A, Taylor EB. Historical and contemporary processes driving the origin and structure of an admixed population within a contact zone between subspecies of a north temperate diadromous fish. Mol Ecol 2024; 33:e17459. [PMID: 38994921 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Hybridization between divergent lineages can result in losses of distinct evolutionary taxa. Alternatively, hybridization can lead to increased genetic variability that may fuel local adaptation and the generation of novel traits and/or taxa. Here, we examined single-nucleotide polymorphisms generated using genotyping-by-sequencing in a population of Dolly Varden char (Pisces: Salmonidae) that is highly admixed within a contact zone between two subspecies (Salvelinus malma malma, Northern Dolly Varden [NDV] and S. m. lordi, Southern Dolly Varden [SDV]) in southwestern Alaska to assess the spatial distribution of hybrids and to test hypotheses on the origin of the admixed population. Ancestry analysis revealed that this admixed population is composed of advanced generation hybrids between NDV and SDV or advanced backcrosses to SDV; no F1 hybrids were detected. Coalescent-based demographic modelling supported the origin of this population about 55,000 years ago by secondary contact between NDV and SDV with low levels of contemporary gene flow. Ancestry in NDV and SDV varies within the watershed and ancestry in NDV was positively associated with distance upstream from the sea, contingent on habitat-type sampled, and negatively associated with the number of migrations that individual fish made to the sea. Our results suggest that divergence between subspecies over hundreds of thousands of years may not be associated with significant reproductive isolation, but that elevated diversity owing to hybridization may have contributed to adaptive divergence in habitat use and life history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Liu
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Armando Geraldes
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Eric B Taylor
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Beaty Biodiversity Museum, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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2
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Rondeau EB, Christensen KA, Johnson HA, Sakhrani D, Biagi CA, Wetklo M, Despins CA, Leggatt RA, Minkley DR, Withler RE, Beacham TD, Koop BF, Devlin RH. Insights from a chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) genome assembly regarding whole-genome duplication and nucleotide variation influencing gene function. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2023; 13:jkad127. [PMID: 37293843 PMCID: PMC10411575 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Chum salmon are ecologically important to Pacific Ocean ecosystems and commercially important to fisheries. To improve the genetic resources available for this species, we sequenced and assembled the genome of a male chum salmon using Oxford Nanopore read technology and the Flye genome assembly software (contig N50: ∼2 Mbp, complete BUSCOs: ∼98.1%). We also resequenced the genomes of 59 chum salmon from hatchery sources to better characterize the genome assembly and the diversity of nucleotide variants impacting phenotype variation. With genomic sequences from a doubled haploid individual, we were able to identify regions of the genome assembly that have been collapsed due to high sequence similarity between homeologous (duplicated) chromosomes. The homeologous chromosomes are relics of an ancient salmonid-specific genome duplication. These regions were enriched with genes whose functions are related to the immune system and responses to toxins. From analyzing nucleotide variant annotations of the resequenced genomes, we were also able to identify genes that have increased levels of variants thought to moderately impact gene function. Genes related to the immune system and the detection of chemical stimuli (olfaction) had increased levels of these variants based on a gene ontology enrichment analysis. The tandem organization of many of the enriched genes raises the question of why they have this organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric B Rondeau
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Drive, West Vancouver, BC V7V 1N6, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Kris A Christensen
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Drive, West Vancouver, BC V7V 1N6, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Hollie A Johnson
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Dionne Sakhrani
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Drive, West Vancouver, BC V7V 1N6, Canada
| | - Carlo A Biagi
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Drive, West Vancouver, BC V7V 1N6, Canada
| | - Mike Wetklo
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Cody A Despins
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Rosalind A Leggatt
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Drive, West Vancouver, BC V7V 1N6, Canada
| | - David R Minkley
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Ruth E Withler
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Terry D Beacham
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Pacific Biological Station, 3190 Hammond Bay Road, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Ben F Koop
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Robert H Devlin
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Drive, West Vancouver, BC V7V 1N6, Canada
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3
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Scribner KT, Soiseth C, McGuire J, Sage GK, Thorsteinson L, Nielsen JL, Knudsen E. Genetic assessment of the effects of streamscape succession on coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch colonization in recently deglaciated streams. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2017; 91:195-218. [PMID: 28523791 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Measures of genetic diversity within and among populations and historical geomorphological data on stream landscapes were used in model simulations based on approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) to examine hypotheses of the relative importance of stream features (geomorphology and age) associated with colonization events and gene flow for coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch breeding in recently deglaciated streams (50-240 years b.p.) in Glacier Bay National Park (GBNP), Alaska. Population estimates of genetic diversity including heterozygosity and allelic richness declined significantly and monotonically from the oldest and largest to youngest and smallest GBNP streams. Interpopulation variance in allele frequency increased with increasing distance between streams (r = 0·435, P < 0·01) and was inversely related to stream age (r = -0·281, P < 0·01). The most supported model of colonization involved ongoing or recent (<10 generations before sampling) colonization originating from large populations outside Glacier Bay proper into all other GBNP streams sampled. Results here show that sustained gene flow from large source populations is important to recently established O. kisutch metapopulations. Studies that document how genetic and demographic characteristics of newly founded populations vary associated with successional changes in stream habitat are of particular importance to and have significant implications for, restoration of declining or repatriation of extirpated populations in other regions of the species' native range.
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Affiliation(s)
- K T Scribner
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824-1222, U.S.A
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824-1222, U.S.A
| | - C Soiseth
- Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, P. O. Box 140, Gustavus, AK, 99826, U.S.A
| | - J McGuire
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824-1222, U.S.A
| | - G K Sage
- U. S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK, 99508, U.S.A
| | - L Thorsteinson
- Alaska Region, U. S. Geological Survey, 250 Egan Drive, Juneau, AK, 99801, U.S.A
| | - J L Nielsen
- U. S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK, 99508, U.S.A
| | - E Knudsen
- U. S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, AK, 99508, U.S.A
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Gracianne C, Jan P, Fournet S, Olivier E, Arnaud J, Porte C, Bardou‐Valette S, Denis M, Petit EJ. Temporal sampling helps unravel the genetic structure of naturally occurring populations of a phytoparasitic nematode. 2. Separating the relative effects of gene flow and genetic drift. Evol Appl 2016; 9:1005-16. [PMID: 27606008 PMCID: PMC4999530 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Studying wild pathogen populations in natural ecosystems offers the opportunity to better understand the evolutionary dynamics of biotic diseases in crops and to enhance pest control strategies. We used simulations and genetic markers to investigate the spatial and temporal population genetic structure of wild populations of the beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii on a wild host plant species, the sea beet (Beta vulgaris spp. maritima), the wild ancestor of cultivated beets. Our analysis of the variation of eight microsatellite loci across four study sites showed that (i) wild H. schachtii populations displayed fine-scaled genetic structure with no evidence of substantial levels of gene flow beyond the scale of the host plant, and comparisons with simulations indicated that (ii) genetic drift substantially affected the residual signals of isolation-by-distance processes, leading to departures from migration-drift equilibrium. In contrast to what can be suspected for (crop) field populations, this showed that wild cyst nematodes have very low dispersal capabilities and are strongly disconnected from each other. Our results provide some key elements for designing pest control strategies, such as decreasing passive dispersal events to limit the spread of virulence among field nematode populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Gracianne
- IGEPPINRA, Agrocampus OuestUniversité Rennes 1Le RheuFrance
- VetAgro Sup, UMR 1095, GDECClermont UniversitéClermont‐FerrandFrance
| | - Pierre‐Loup Jan
- IGEPPINRA, Agrocampus OuestUniversité Rennes 1Le RheuFrance
- ESE, Ecology and Ecosystems HealthAgrocampus OuestINRARennesFrance
| | | | - Eric Olivier
- IGEPPINRA, Agrocampus OuestUniversité Rennes 1Le RheuFrance
| | - Jean‐François Arnaud
- UMR CNRS 8198 ÉvolutionÉcologie et PaléontologieUniversité Lille 1 ‐ Sciences et TechnologiesVilleneuve d'Ascq CedexFrance
| | | | | | | | - Eric J. Petit
- ESE, Ecology and Ecosystems HealthAgrocampus OuestINRARennesFrance
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Burridge CP, Peucker AJ, Valautham SK, Styan CA, Dann P. Nonequilibrium Conditions Explain Spatial Variability in Genetic Structuring of Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor). J Hered 2015; 106:228-37. [PMID: 25833231 PMCID: PMC4406270 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esv009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Factors responsible for spatial structuring of population genetic variation are varied, and in many instances there may be no obvious explanations for genetic structuring observed, or those invoked may reflect spurious correlations. A study of little penguins (Eudyptula minor) in southeast Australia documented low spatial structuring of genetic variation with the exception of colonies at the western limit of sampling, and this distinction was attributed to an intervening oceanographic feature (Bonney Upwelling), differences in breeding phenology, or sea level change. Here, we conducted sampling across the entire Australian range, employing additional markers (12 microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA, 697 individuals, 17 colonies). The zone of elevated genetic structuring previously observed actually represents the eastern half of a genetic cline, within which structuring exists over much shorter spatial scales than elsewhere. Colonies separated by as little as 27 km in the zone are genetically distinguishable, while outside the zone, homogeneity cannot be rejected at scales of up to 1400 km. Given a lack of additional physical or environmental barriers to gene flow, the zone of elevated genetic structuring may reflect secondary contact of lineages (with or without selection against interbreeding), or recent colonization and expansion from this region. This study highlights the importance of sampling scale to reveal the cause of genetic structuring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher P Burridge
- From the School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia (Burridge and Valautham); the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia (Peucker and Styan); the School of Energy and Resources, UCL Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia (Styan); and the Research Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, Cowes, Victoria 3922, Australia (Dann).
| | - Amanda J Peucker
- From the School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia (Burridge and Valautham); the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia (Peucker and Styan); the School of Energy and Resources, UCL Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia (Styan); and the Research Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, Cowes, Victoria 3922, Australia (Dann)
| | - Sureen K Valautham
- From the School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia (Burridge and Valautham); the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia (Peucker and Styan); the School of Energy and Resources, UCL Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia (Styan); and the Research Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, Cowes, Victoria 3922, Australia (Dann)
| | - Craig A Styan
- From the School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia (Burridge and Valautham); the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia (Peucker and Styan); the School of Energy and Resources, UCL Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia (Styan); and the Research Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, Cowes, Victoria 3922, Australia (Dann)
| | - Peter Dann
- From the School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia (Burridge and Valautham); the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia (Peucker and Styan); the School of Energy and Resources, UCL Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia (Styan); and the Research Department, Phillip Island Nature Parks, Cowes, Victoria 3922, Australia (Dann)
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6
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Waples RK, Seeb LW, Seeb JE. Linkage mapping with paralogs exposes regions of residual tetrasomic inheritance in chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta). Mol Ecol Resour 2015; 16:17-28. [DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. K. Waples
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences; University of Washington; 1122 NE Boat Street Box 355020 Seattle Washington 98195 USA
| | - L. W. Seeb
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences; University of Washington; 1122 NE Boat Street Box 355020 Seattle Washington 98195 USA
| | - J. E. Seeb
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences; University of Washington; 1122 NE Boat Street Box 355020 Seattle Washington 98195 USA
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Bond MH, Crane PA, Larson WA, Quinn TP. Is isolation by adaptation driving genetic divergence among proximate Dolly Varden char populations? Ecol Evol 2014; 4:2515-32. [PMID: 25360283 PMCID: PMC4203295 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies of population genetics in salmonids and other anadromous fishes have revealed that population structure is generally organized into geographic hierarchies (isolation by distance), but significant structure can exist in proximate populations due to varying selective pressures (isolation by adaptation). In Chignik Lakes, Alaska, anadromous Dolly Varden char (Salvelinus malma) spawn in nearly all accessible streams throughout the watershed, including those draining directly to an estuary, Chignik Lagoon, into larger rivers, and into lakes. Collections of Dolly Varden fry from 13 streams throughout the system revealed low levels of population structure among streams emptying into freshwater. However, much stronger genetic differentiation was detected between streams emptying into freshwater and streams flowing directly into estuarine environments. This fine-scale reproductive isolation without any physical barriers to migration is likely driven by differences in selection pressures across freshwater and estuarine environments. Estuary tributaries had fewer larger, older juveniles, suggesting an alternative life history of smolting and migration to the marine environment at a much smaller size than occurs in the other populations. Therefore, genetic data were consistent with a scenario where isolation by adaptation occurs between populations of Dolly Varden in the study system, and ecological data suggest that this isolation may partially be a result of a novel Dolly Varden life history of seawater tolerance at a smaller size than previously recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan H Bond
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington Box 355020, Seattle, Washington, 98195
| | - Penelope A Crane
- Conservation Genetics Laboratory, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska, 99503
| | - Wesley A Larson
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington Box 355020, Seattle, Washington, 98195
| | - Tom P Quinn
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington Box 355020, Seattle, Washington, 98195
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Oleinik AG, Skurikhina LA, Bondar EI, Brykov VA. Phylogeography of northern Dolly Varden Salvelinus malma malma
based on analysis of mitochondrial DNA. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/jzs.12067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alla G. Oleinik
- Institute of Marine Biology; Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Vladivostok Russia
| | - Lubov A. Skurikhina
- Institute of Marine Biology; Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Vladivostok Russia
| | - Evgenia I. Bondar
- Institute of Marine Biology; Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Vladivostok Russia
- Far Eastern Federal University; Vladivostok Russia
| | - Vladimir A. Brykov
- Institute of Marine Biology; Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Vladivostok Russia
- Far Eastern Federal University; Vladivostok Russia
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Jasper JR, Habicht C, Moffitt S, Brenner R, Marsh J, Lewis B, Creelman Fox E, Grauvogel Z, Rogers Olive SD, Grant WS. Source-sink estimates of genetic introgression show influence of hatchery strays on wild chum salmon populations in Prince William Sound, Alaska. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81916. [PMID: 24349150 PMCID: PMC3862497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The extent to which stray, hatchery-reared salmon affect wild populations is much debated. Although experiments show that artificial breeding and culture influence the genetics of hatchery salmon, little is known about the interaction between hatchery and wild salmon in a natural setting. Here, we estimated historical and contemporary genetic population structures of chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska, with 135 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Historical population structure was inferred from the analysis of DNA from fish scales, which had been archived since the late 1960’s for several populations in PWS. Parallel analyses with microsatellites and a test based on Hardy-Weinberg proportions showed that about 50% of the fish-scale DNA was cross-contaminated with DNA from other fish. These samples were removed from the analysis. We used a novel application of the classical source-sink model to compare SNP allele frequencies in these archived fish-scales (1964–1982) with frequencies in contemporary samples (2008–2010) and found a temporal shift toward hatchery allele frequencies in some wild populations. Other populations showed markedly less introgression, despite moderate amounts of hatchery straying. The extent of introgression may reflect similarities in spawning time and life-history traits between hatchery and wild fish, or the degree that hybrids return to a natal spawning area. The source-sink model is a powerful means of detecting low levels of introgression over several generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R. Jasper
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JJ); (WSG)
| | - Christopher Habicht
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Steve Moffitt
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Cordova, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Rich Brenner
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Cordova, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Marsh
- School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Juneau, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Bert Lewis
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Elisabeth Creelman Fox
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Zac Grauvogel
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Serena D. Rogers Olive
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - W. Stewart Grant
- Commercial Fisheries Division, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JJ); (WSG)
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