1
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Crowe-McAuliffe C, Takada H, Murina V, Polte C, Kasvandik S, Tenson T, Ignatova Z, Atkinson GC, Wilson DN, Hauryliuk V. Structural Basis for Bacterial Ribosome-Associated Quality Control by RqcH and RqcP. Mol Cell 2020; 81:115-126.e7. [PMID: 33259810 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2020.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In all branches of life, stalled translation intermediates are recognized and processed by ribosome-associated quality control (RQC) pathways. RQC begins with the splitting of stalled ribosomes, leaving an unfinished polypeptide still attached to the large subunit. Ancient and conserved NEMF family RQC proteins target these incomplete proteins for degradation by the addition of C-terminal "tails." How such tailing can occur without the regular suite of translational components is, however, unclear. Using single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (EM) of native complexes, we show that C-terminal tailing in Bacillus subtilis is mediated by NEMF protein RqcH in concert with RqcP, an Hsp15 family protein. Our structures reveal how these factors mediate tRNA movement across the ribosomal 50S subunit to synthesize polypeptides in the absence of mRNA or the small subunit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caillan Crowe-McAuliffe
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Pl. 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hiraku Takada
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden; Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Victoriia Murina
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden; Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Christine Polte
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Pl. 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sergo Kasvandik
- University of Tartu, Institute of Technology, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tanel Tenson
- University of Tartu, Institute of Technology, 50411 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Zoya Ignatova
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Pl. 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gemma C Atkinson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Daniel N Wilson
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Pl. 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Vasili Hauryliuk
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden; Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden; University of Tartu, Institute of Technology, 50411 Tartu, Estonia.
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2
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Jiang Y, Qin M, Guo Z. Substrate Recognition and Catalytic Mechanism of the Phosphate Acyltransferase PlsX from Bacillus subtilis. Chembiochem 2020; 21:2019-2028. [PMID: 32180316 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Phosphate: acyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) acyltransferase PlsX is a peripheral enzyme catalysing acyl transfer to orthophosphate in phospholipid synthesis. Little is known about how it recognises substrates and catalyses the acyl transfer. Here we show that its active site includes many residues lining a long, narrow gorge at the dimeric interface, two positive residues forming a positive ACP docking pad next to the interfacial gorge, and a number of strictly conserved residues significantly contributing to the catalytic activity. These findings suggest a substrate recognition mode and a catalytic mechanism that are different from those of phosphotransacetylases catalysing a similar acyl transfer reaction. The catalytic mechanism involves substrate activation and transition-state stabilization by two strictly conserved residues, Lys184 and Asn229. Another noticeable feature of the catalysis is the release of the acyl phosphate product near the membrane, which might facilitate its membrane insertion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiping Jiang
- Shenzhen Research Institute Hong Kong Branch of Guangdong Southern Marine Science and Engineering Laboratory (Guangzhou) and Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Mingming Qin
- Shenzhen Research Institute Hong Kong Branch of Guangdong Southern Marine Science and Engineering Laboratory (Guangzhou) and Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zhihong Guo
- Shenzhen Research Institute Hong Kong Branch of Guangdong Southern Marine Science and Engineering Laboratory (Guangzhou) and Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
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3
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Sastre DE, Pulschen AA, Basso LGM, Benites Pariente JS, Marques Netto CGC, Machinandiarena F, Albanesi D, Navarro MVAS, de Mendoza D, Gueiros-Filho FJ. The phosphatidic acid pathway enzyme PlsX plays both catalytic and channeling roles in bacterial phospholipid synthesis. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:2148-2159. [PMID: 31919098 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
PlsX is the first enzyme in the pathway that produces phosphatidic acid in Gram-positive bacteria. It makes acylphosphate from acyl-acyl carrier protein (acyl-ACP) and is also involved in coordinating phospholipid and fatty acid biosyntheses. PlsX is a peripheral membrane enzyme in Bacillus subtilis, but how it associates with the membrane remains largely unknown. In the present study, using fluorescence microscopy, liposome sedimentation, differential scanning calorimetry, and acyltransferase assays, we determined that PlsX binds directly to lipid bilayers and identified its membrane anchoring moiety, consisting of a hydrophobic loop located at the tip of two amphipathic dimerization helices. To establish the role of the membrane association of PlsX in acylphosphate synthesis and in the flux through the phosphatidic acid pathway, we then created mutations and gene fusions that prevent PlsX's interaction with the membrane. Interestingly, phospholipid synthesis was severely hampered in cells in which PlsX was detached from the membrane, and results from metabolic labeling indicated that these cells accumulated free fatty acids. Because the same mutations did not affect PlsX transacylase activity, we conclude that membrane association is required for the proper delivery of PlsX's product to PlsY, the next enzyme in the phosphatidic acid pathway. We conclude that PlsX plays a dual role in phospholipid synthesis, acting both as a catalyst and as a chaperone protein that mediates substrate channeling into the pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego E Sastre
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil; Grupo de Biofísica Molecular "Sergio Mascarenhas," Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Departamento de Biofísica Molecular, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, SP 13560-970, Brazil
| | - André A Pulschen
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Luis G M Basso
- Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Filosofia Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14040-901, Brazil
| | | | | | - Federico Machinandiarena
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), CONICET and Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Santa Fe S2002LRK, Argentina
| | - Daniela Albanesi
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), CONICET and Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Santa Fe S2002LRK, Argentina
| | - Marcos V A S Navarro
- Grupo de Biofísica Molecular "Sergio Mascarenhas," Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Departamento de Biofísica Molecular, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, SP 13560-970, Brazil
| | - Diego de Mendoza
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), CONICET and Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Santa Fe S2002LRK, Argentina.
| | - Frederico J Gueiros-Filho
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil.
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4
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Sastre DE, Basso LGM, Trastoy B, Cifuente JO, Contreras X, Gueiros-Filho F, de Mendoza D, Navarro MVAS, Guerin ME. Membrane fluidity adjusts the insertion of the transacylase PlsX to regulate phospholipid biosynthesis in Gram-positive bacteria. J Biol Chem 2019; 295:2136-2147. [PMID: 31796629 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PlsX plays a central role in the coordination of fatty acid and phospholipid biosynthesis in Gram-positive bacteria. PlsX is a peripheral membrane acyltransferase that catalyzes the conversion of acyl-ACP to acyl-phosphate, which is in turn utilized by the polytopic membrane acyltransferase PlsY on the pathway of bacterial phospholipid biosynthesis. We have recently studied the interaction between PlsX and membrane phospholipids in vivo and in vitro, and observed that membrane association is necessary for the efficient transfer of acyl-phosphate to PlsY. However, understanding the molecular basis of such a channeling mechanism remains a major challenge. Here, we disentangle the binding and insertion events of the enzyme to the membrane, and the subsequent catalysis. We show that PlsX membrane binding is a process mostly mediated by phospholipid charge, whereas fatty acid saturation and membrane fluidity remarkably influence the membrane insertion step. Strikingly, the PlsXL254E mutant, whose biological functionality was severely compromised in vivo but remains catalytically active in vitro, was able to superficially bind to phospholipid vesicles, nevertheless, it loses the insertion capacity, strongly supporting the importance of membrane insertion in acyl-phosphate delivery. We propose a mechanism in which membrane fluidity governs the insertion of PlsX and thus regulates the biosynthesis of phospholipids in Gram-positive bacteria. This model may be operational in other peripheral membrane proteins with an unprecedented impact in drug discovery/development strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego E Sastre
- Grupo de Biofísica Molecular "Sergio Mascarenhas," Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brasil.
| | - Luis G M Basso
- Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Filosofia Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Beatriz Trastoy
- Structural Biology Unit, CIC bioGUNE Technological Park of Bizkaia, Derio, Vizcaya, Spain
| | - Javier O Cifuente
- Structural Biology Unit, CIC bioGUNE Technological Park of Bizkaia, Derio, Vizcaya, Spain
| | - Xabier Contreras
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain; Instituto Biofisika, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (CSIC,UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, Leioa, 48940 Bizkaia, Spain; Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidad del País Vasco, Leioa, 48940 Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Frederico Gueiros-Filho
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Diego de Mendoza
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Marcos V A S Navarro
- Grupo de Biofísica Molecular "Sergio Mascarenhas," Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Marcelo E Guerin
- Structural Biology Unit, CIC bioGUNE Technological Park of Bizkaia, Derio, Vizcaya, Spain; IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013 Bilbao, Spain.
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5
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Jiang Y, Dai X, Qin M, Guo Z. Identification of an amphipathic peptide sensor of the Bacillus subtilis fluid membrane microdomains. Commun Biol 2019; 2:316. [PMID: 31453380 PMCID: PMC6702220 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0562-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Regions of increased fluidity are newly found bacterial membrane microdomains that are composed of short, unsaturated and branched fatty acyl chains in a fluid and disordered state. Currently, little is known about how proteins are recruited and localized to these membrane domains. Here, we identify a short amphipathic α-peptide in a previously unreported crystal structure and show that it is responsible for peripheral localization of the phosphate acyltransferase PlsX to the fluid microdomains in Bacillus subtilis. Mutations disrupting the amphipathic interaction or increasing the nonpolar interaction are found to redistribute the protein to the cytosol or other part of the plasma membrane, causing growth defects. These results reveal a mechanism of peripheral membrane sensing through optimizing nonpolar interaction with the special lipids in the microdomains. This finding shows that the fluid membrane microdomains may take advantage of their unique lipid environment as a means of recruiting and organizing proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiping Jiang
- Shenzhen Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Xin Dai
- Shenzhen Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Mingming Qin
- Shenzhen Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Zhihong Guo
- Shenzhen Research Institute and Department of Chemistry, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR China
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6
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Weihs F, Wacnik K, Turner RD, Culley S, Henriques R, Foster SJ. Heterogeneous localisation of membrane proteins in Staphylococcus aureus. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3657. [PMID: 29483609 PMCID: PMC5826919 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-21750-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial cytoplasmic membrane is the interface between the cell and its environment, with multiple membrane proteins serving its many functions. However, how these proteins are organised to permit optimal physiological processes is largely unknown. Based on our initial findings that 2 phospholipid biosynthetic enzymes (PlsY and CdsA) localise heterogeneously in the membrane of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, we have analysed the localisation of other key membrane proteins. A range of protein fusions were constructed and used in conjunction with quantitative image analysis. Enzymes involved in phospholipid biosynthesis as well as the lipid raft marker FloT exhibited a heterogeneous localisation pattern. However, the secretion associated SecY protein, was more homogeneously distributed in the membrane. A FRET-based system also identified novel colocalisation between phospholipid biosynthesis enzymes and the respiratory protein CydB revealing a likely larger network of partners. PlsY localisation was found to be dose dependent but not to be affected by membrane lipid composition. Disruption of the activity of the essential cell division organiser FtsZ, using the inhibitor PC190723 led to loss of PlsY localisation, revealing a link to cell division and a possible role for FtsZ in functions not strictly associated with septum formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Weihs
- The Krebs Institute. Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Katarzyna Wacnik
- The Krebs Institute. Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Robert D Turner
- The Krebs Institute. Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Siân Culley
- Quantitative Imaging and Nanobiophysics Group, MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology and Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Rd, Kings Cross, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Ricardo Henriques
- Quantitative Imaging and Nanobiophysics Group, MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology and Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Rd, Kings Cross, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Simon J Foster
- The Krebs Institute. Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
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7
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Takada H, Shiwa Y, Takino Y, Osaka N, Ueda S, Watanabe S, Chibazakura T, Su'etsugu M, Utsumi R, Yoshikawa H. Essentiality of WalRK for growth in Bacillus subtilis and its role during heat stress. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2018; 164:670-684. [PMID: 29465029 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
WalRK is an essential two-component signal transduction system that plays a central role in coordinating cell wall synthesis and cell growth in Bacillus subtilis. However, the physiological role of WalRK and its essentiality for growth have not been elucidated. We investigated the behaviour of WalRK during heat stress and its essentiality for cell proliferation. We determined that the inactivation of the walHI genes which encode the negative modulator of WalK, resulted in growth defects and eventual cell lysis at high temperatures. Screening of suppressor mutations revealed that the inactivation of LytE, an dl-endopeptidase, restored the growth of the ΔwalHI mutant at high temperatures. Suppressor mutations that reduced heat induction arising from the walRK regulon were also mapped to the walK ORF. Therefore, we hypothesized that overactivation of LytE affects the phenotype of the ΔwalHI mutant. This hypothesis was corroborated by the overexpression of the negative regulator of LytE, IseA and PdaC, which rescued the growth of the ΔwalHI mutant at high temperatures. Elucidating the cause of the temperature sensitivity of the ΔwalHI mutant could explain the essentiality of WalRK. We proved that the constitutive expression of lytE or cwlO using a synthetic promoter uncouples these expressions from WalRK, and renders WalRK nonessential in the pdaC and iseA mutant backgrounds. We propose that the essentiality of WalRK is derived from the coordination of cell wall metabolism with cell growth by regulating dl-endopeptidase activity under various growth conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiraku Takada
- Department of Life Science and Research Center for Life Science, College of Science, Rikkyo University, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8501, Japan.,Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
| | - Yuh Shiwa
- Genome Research Center, NODAI Research Institute, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
| | - Yuta Takino
- Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
| | - Natsuki Osaka
- Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
| | - Shuhei Ueda
- Department of Advanced Bioscience, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kindai University, 3327-204 Nakamachi, Nara-shi, Nara 631-8505, Japan
| | - Satoru Watanabe
- Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
| | - Taku Chibazakura
- Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
| | - Masayuki Su'etsugu
- Department of Life Science and Research Center for Life Science, College of Science, Rikkyo University, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8501, Japan
| | - Ryutaro Utsumi
- Department of Advanced Bioscience, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kindai University, 3327-204 Nakamachi, Nara-shi, Nara 631-8505, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Yoshikawa
- Genome Research Center, NODAI Research Institute, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan.,Department of Bioscience, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8502, Japan
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8
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Zhang Z, Milias-Argeitis A, Heinemann M. Dynamic single-cell NAD(P)H measurement reveals oscillatory metabolism throughout the E. coli cell division cycle. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2162. [PMID: 29391569 PMCID: PMC5795003 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-20550-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent work has shown that metabolism between individual bacterial cells in an otherwise isogenetic population can be different. To investigate such heterogeneity, experimental methods to zoom into the metabolism of individual cells are required. To this end, the autofluoresence of the redox cofactors NADH and NADPH offers great potential for single-cell dynamic NAD(P)H measurements. However, NAD(P)H excitation requires UV light, which can cause cell damage. In this work, we developed a method for time-lapse NAD(P)H imaging in single E. coli cells. Our method combines a setup with reduced background emission, UV-enhanced microscopy equipment and optimized exposure settings, overall generating acceptable NAD(P)H signals from single cells, with minimal negative effect on cell growth. Through different experiments, in which we perturb E. coli's redox metabolism, we demonstrated that the acquired fluorescence signal indeed corresponds to NAD(P)H. Using this new method, for the first time, we report that intracellular NAD(P)H levels oscillate along the bacterial cell division cycle. The developed method for dynamic measurement of NAD(P)H in single bacterial cells will be an important tool to zoom into metabolism of individual cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Zhang
- Molecular Systems Biology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Andreas Milias-Argeitis
- Molecular Systems Biology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Matthias Heinemann
- Molecular Systems Biology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, Netherlands.
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9
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Furse S, Jakubec M, Rise F, Williams HE, Rees CED, Halskau Ø. Evidence that Listeria innocua modulates its membrane's stored curvature elastic stress, but not fluidity, through the cell cycle. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8012. [PMID: 28808346 PMCID: PMC5556093 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-06855-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper reports that the abundances of endogenous cardiolipin and phosphatidylethanolamine halve during elongation of the Gram-positive bacterium Listeria innocua. The lyotropic phase behaviour of model lipid systems that describe these modulations in lipid composition indicate that the average stored curvature elastic stress of the membrane is reduced on elongation of the cell, while the fluidity appears to be maintained. These findings suggest that phospholipid metabolism is linked to the cell cycle and that changes in membrane composition can facilitate passage to the succeding stage of the cell cycle. This therefore suggests a means by which bacteria can manage the physical properties of their membranes through the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Furse
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, NO-5006, Bergen, Norway
| | - Martin Jakubec
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, NO-5006, Bergen, Norway
| | - Frode Rise
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1033, Blindern, NO-0315, Oslo, Norway
| | - Huw E Williams
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, NG7 2RD, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine E D Rees
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, LE12 5RD, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom
| | - Øyvind Halskau
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, NO-5006, Bergen, Norway.
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10
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Shin SM, Song SH, Lee JW, Kwak MK, Kang SO. Methylglyoxal synthase regulates cell elongation via alterations of cellular methylglyoxal and spermidine content in Bacillus subtilis. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2017; 91:14-28. [PMID: 28807600 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2017.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Methylglyoxal regulates cell division and differentiation through its interaction with polyamines. Loss of their biosynthesizing enzyme causes physiological impairment and cell elongation in eukaryotes. However, the reciprocal effects of methylglyoxal and polyamine production and its regulatory metabolic switches on morphological changes in prokaryotes have not been addressed. Here, Bacillus subtilis methylglyoxal synthase (mgsA) and polyamine biosynthesizing genes encoding arginine decarboxylase (SpeA), agmatinase (SpeB), and spermidine synthase (SpeE), were disrupted or overexpressed. Treatment of 0.2mM methylglyoxal and 1mM spermidine led to the elongation and shortening of B. subtilis wild-type cells to 12.38±3.21μm (P<0.05) and 3.24±0.73μm (P<0.01), respectively, compared to untreated cells (5.72±0.68μm). mgsA-deficient (mgsA-) and -overexpressing (mgsAOE) mutants also demonstrated cell shortening and elongation, similar to speB- and speE-deficient (speB- and speE-) and -overexpressing (speBOE and speEOE) mutants. Importantly, both mgsA-depleted speBOE and speEOE mutants (speBOE/mgsA- and speEOE/mgsA-) were drastically shortened to 24.5% and 23.8% of parental speBOE and speEOE mutants, respectively. These phenotypes were associated with reciprocal alterations of mgsA and polyamine transcripts governed by the contents of methylglyoxal and spermidine, which are involved in enzymatic or genetic metabolite-control mechanisms. Additionally, biophysically detected methylglyoxal-spermidine Schiff bases did not affect morphogenesis. Taken together, the findings indicate that methylglyoxal triggers cell elongation. Furthermore, cells with methylglyoxal accumulation commonly exhibit an elongated rod-shaped morphology through upregulation of mgsA, polyamine genes, and the global regulator spx, as well as repression of the cell division and shape regulator, FtsZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Min Shin
- Laboratory of Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hyun Song
- Laboratory of Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Woo Lee
- Laboratory of Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Kyu Kwak
- Laboratory of Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sa-Ouk Kang
- Laboratory of Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, and Institute of Microbiology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea.
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11
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Suppression of the Escherichia coli dnaA46 mutation by changes in the activities of the pyruvate-acetate node links DNA replication regulation to central carbon metabolism. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0176050. [PMID: 28448512 PMCID: PMC5407757 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
To ensure faithful transmission of genetic material to progeny cells, DNA replication is tightly regulated, mainly at the initiation step. Escherichia coli cells regulate the frequency of initiation according to growth conditions. Results of the classical, as well as the latest studies, suggest that the DNA replication in E. coli starts at a predefined, constant cell volume per chromosome but the mechanisms coordinating DNA replication with cell growth are still not fully understood. Results of recent investigations have revealed a role of metabolic pathway proteins in the control of cell division and a direct link between metabolism and DNA replication has also been suggested both in Bacillus subtilis and E. coli cells. In this work we show that defects in the acetate overflow pathway suppress the temperature-sensitivity of a defective replication initiator–DnaA under acetogenic growth conditions. Transcriptomic and metabolic analyses imply that this suppression is correlated with pyruvate accumulation, resulting from alterations in the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activity. Consequently, deletion of genes encoding the pyruvate dehydrogenase subunits likewise resulted in suppression of the thermal-sensitive growth of the dnaA46 strain. We propose that the suppressor effect may be directly related to the PDH complex activity, providing a link between an enzyme of the central carbon metabolism and DNA replication.
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12
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Daptomycin inhibits cell envelope synthesis by interfering with fluid membrane microdomains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E7077-E7086. [PMID: 27791134 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1611173113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Daptomycin is a highly efficient last-resort antibiotic that targets the bacterial cell membrane. Despite its clinical importance, the exact mechanism by which daptomycin kills bacteria is not fully understood. Different experiments have led to different models, including (i) blockage of cell wall synthesis, (ii) membrane pore formation, and (iii) the generation of altered membrane curvature leading to aberrant recruitment of proteins. To determine which model is correct, we carried out a comprehensive mode-of-action study using the model organism Bacillus subtilis and different assays, including proteomics, ionomics, and fluorescence light microscopy. We found that daptomycin causes a gradual decrease in membrane potential but does not form discrete membrane pores. Although we found no evidence for altered membrane curvature, we confirmed that daptomycin inhibits cell wall synthesis. Interestingly, using different fluorescent lipid probes, we showed that binding of daptomycin led to a drastic rearrangement of fluid lipid domains, affecting overall membrane fluidity. Importantly, these changes resulted in the rapid detachment of the membrane-associated lipid II synthase MurG and the phospholipid synthase PlsX. Both proteins preferentially colocalize with fluid membrane microdomains. Delocalization of these proteins presumably is a key reason why daptomycin blocks cell wall synthesis. Finally, clustering of fluid lipids by daptomycin likely causes hydrophobic mismatches between fluid and more rigid membrane areas. This mismatch can facilitate proton leakage and may explain the gradual membrane depolarization observed with daptomycin. Targeting of fluid lipid domains has not been described before for antibiotics and adds another dimension to our understanding of membrane-active antibiotics.
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13
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Cardiolipin deficiency causes a dissociation of the b 6 c:caa 3 megacomplex in B. subtilis membranes. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2016; 48:451-67. [PMID: 27503613 DOI: 10.1007/s10863-016-9671-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The associations among respiratory complexes in energy-transducing membranes have been established. In fact, it is known that the Gram-negative bacteria Paracoccus denitrificans and Escherichia coli have respiratory supercomplexes in their membranes. These supercomplexes are important for channeling substrates between enzymes in a metabolic pathway, and the assembly of these supercomplexes depends on the protein subunits and membrane lipids, mainly cardiolipin, which is present in both the mitochondrial inner membrane and bacterial membranes. The Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis has a branched respiratory chain, in which some complexes generate proton motive force whereas others constitute an escape valve of excess reducing power. Some peculiarities of this respiratory chain are the following: a type II NADH dehydrogenase, a unique b 6 c complex that has a b 6 type cytochrome with a covalently bound heme, and a c-type heme attached to the third subunit, which is similar to subunit IV of the photosynthetic b 6 f complex. Cytochrome c oxygen reductase (caa 3 ) contains a c-type cytochrome on subunit I. We previously showed that the b 6 c and the caa 3 complexes form a supercomplex. Both the b 6 c and the caa 3 together with the quinol oxygen reductase aa 3 generate the proton motive force in B. subtilis. In order to seek proof that this supercomplex is important for bacterial growth in aerobic conditions we compared the b 6 c: caa 3 supercomplex from wild type membranes with membranes from two mutants lacking cardiolipin. Both mutant complexes were found to have similar activity and heme content as the wild type. Clear native electrophoresis showed that mutants lacking cardiolipin had b 6 c:caa 3 supercomplexes of lower mass or even individual complexes after membrane solubilization with digitonin. The use of dodecyl maltoside revealed a more evident difference between wild-type and mutant supercomplexes. Here we provide evidence showing that cardiolipin plays a role in the stability of the b 6 c:caa 3 supercomplex in B. subtilis.
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14
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Mitra SD, Afonina I, Kline KA. Right Place, Right Time: Focalization of Membrane Proteins in Gram-Positive Bacteria. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24:611-621. [PMID: 27117048 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Membrane proteins represent a significant proportion of total bacterial proteins and perform vital cellular functions ranging from exchanging metabolites and genetic material, secretion and sorting, sensing signal molecules, and cell division. Many of these functions are carried out at distinct foci on the bacterial membrane, and this subcellular localization can be coordinated by a number of factors, including lipid microdomains, protein-protein interactions, and membrane curvature. Elucidating the mechanisms behind focal protein localization in bacteria informs not only protein structure-function correlation, but also how to disrupt the protein function to limit virulence. Here we review recent advances describing a functional role for subcellular localization of membrane proteins involved in genetic transfer, secretion and sorting, cell division and growth, and signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumitra D Mitra
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Irina Afonina
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Kimberly A Kline
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
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15
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Haeusser DP, Margolin W. Splitsville: structural and functional insights into the dynamic bacterial Z ring. Nat Rev Microbiol 2016; 14:305-19. [PMID: 27040757 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria must divide to increase in number and colonize their niche. Binary fission is the most widespread means of bacterial cell division, but even this relatively simple mechanism has many variations on a theme. In most bacteria, the tubulin homologue FtsZ assembles into a ring structure, termed the Z ring, at the site of cytokinesis and recruits additional proteins to form a large protein machine - the divisome - that spans the membrane. In this Review, we discuss current insights into the regulation of the assembly of the Z ring and how the divisome drives membrane invagination and septal cell wall growth while flexibly responding to various cellular inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Haeusser
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Biology Department, Canisius College, 2001 Main Street, Buffalo, New York 14208, USA
| | - William Margolin
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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16
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Sastre DE, Bisson-Filho A, de Mendoza D, Gueiros-Filho FJ. Revisiting the cell biology of the acyl-ACP:phosphate transacylase PlsX suggests that the phospholipid synthesis and cell division machineries are not coupled inBacillus subtilis. Mol Microbiol 2016; 100:621-34. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Emiliano Sastre
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo; São Paulo SP Brazil
| | - Alexandre Bisson-Filho
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS) Center for Systems Biology; Harvard University; Cambridge MA 02138 USA
| | - Diego de Mendoza
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR-CONICET), and Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas; Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Ocampo y Esmeralda, Predio CONICET Rosario; 2000 Rosario Argentina
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17
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You Are What You Eat: Metabolic Control of Bacterial Division. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24:181-189. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2015.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Revised: 11/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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18
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Kusaka J, Shuto S, Imai Y, Ishikawa K, Saito T, Natori K, Matsuoka S, Hara H, Matsumoto K. Septal localization by membrane targeting sequences and a conserved sequence essential for activity at the COOH-terminus of Bacillus subtilis cardiolipin synthase. Res Microbiol 2015; 167:202-14. [PMID: 26708983 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The acidic phospholipid cardiolipin (CL) is localized on polar and septal membranes and plays an important physiological role in Bacillus subtilis cells. ClsA, the enzyme responsible for CL synthesis, is also localized on septal membranes. We found that GFP fusion proteins of the enzyme with NH2-terminal and internal deletions retained septal localization. However, derivatives with deletions starting from the COOH-terminus (Leu482) ceased to localize to the septum once the deletion passed the Ile residue at 448, indicating that the sequence responsible for septal localization is confined within a short distance from the COOH-terminus. Two sequences, Ile436-Leu450 and Leu466-Leu478, are predicted to individually form an amphipathic α-helix. This configuration is known as a membrane targeting sequence (MTS) and we therefore refer to them as MTS2 and MTS1, respectively. Either one has the ability to affect septal localization, and each of these sequences by itself localizes to the septum. Membrane association of the constructs of this enzyme containing the MTSs was verified by subcellular fractionation of the cells. CL synthesis, in contrast, was abolished after deleting just the last residue, Leu482, in the COOH-terminal four amino acid residue sequence, Ser-Pro-Ile-Leu, which is highly conserved among bacterial CL synthases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Kusaka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Satoshi Shuto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Yukiko Imai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Kazuki Ishikawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Tomo Saito
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Kohei Natori
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Satoshi Matsuoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Hara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Kouji Matsumoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-ohkubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama 338-8570, Japan.
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19
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Matsumoto K, Hara H, Fishov I, Mileykovskaya E, Norris V. The membrane: transertion as an organizing principle in membrane heterogeneity. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:572. [PMID: 26124753 PMCID: PMC4464175 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The bacterial membrane exhibits a significantly heterogeneous distribution of lipids and proteins. This heterogeneity results mainly from lipid-lipid, protein-protein, and lipid-protein associations which are orchestrated by the coupled transcription, translation and insertion of nascent proteins into and through membrane (transertion). Transertion is central not only to the individual assembly and disassembly of large physically linked groups of macromolecules (alias hyperstructures) but also to the interactions between these hyperstructures. We review here these interactions in the context of the processes in Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli of nutrient sensing, membrane synthesis, cytoskeletal dynamics, DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kouji Matsumoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, SaitamaJapan
| | - Hiroshi Hara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, SaitamaJapan
| | - Itzhak Fishov
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-ShevaIsrael
| | - Eugenia Mileykovskaya
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at HoustonHouston, TX, USA
| | - Vic Norris
- Laboratory of Microbiology Signals and Microenvironment EA 4312, Department of Science, University of Rouen, Mont-Saint-AignanFrance
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20
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Donovan C, Bramkamp M. Cell division in Corynebacterineae. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:132. [PMID: 24782835 PMCID: PMC3989709 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2013] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial cells must coordinate a number of events during the cell cycle. Spatio-temporal regulation of bacterial cytokinesis is indispensable for the production of viable, genetically identical offspring. In many rod-shaped bacteria, precise midcell assembly of the division machinery relies on inhibitory systems such as Min and Noc. In rod-shaped Actinobacteria, for example Corynebacterium glutamicum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the divisome assembles in the proximity of the midcell region, however more spatial flexibility is observed compared to Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. Actinobacteria represent a group of bacteria that spatially regulate cytokinesis in the absence of recognizable Min and Noc homologs. The key cell division steps in E. coli and B. subtilis have been subject to intensive study and are well-understood. In comparison, only a minimal set of positive and negative regulators of cytokinesis are known in Actinobacteria. Nonetheless, the timing of cytokinesis and the placement of the division septum is coordinated with growth as well as initiation of chromosome replication and segregation. We summarize here the current knowledge on cytokinesis and division site selection in the Actinobacteria suborder Corynebacterineae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catriona Donovan
- Department of Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Marc Bramkamp
- Department of Biology I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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