Molecular, genetic, cellular, and network functions in the spinal cord and brainstem

Chemistry and Effects of Brainstem Acting Drugs

BACKGROUND

Brain is the most sensitive organ, whereas brainstem is the most important part of Central Nervous System (CNS). It connects the brain and the spinal cord. However, a myriad of drugs and chemicals affects CNS with severe resultant effects on the brainstem.

METHODS

In view of this, a number of literature were assessed for information on the most sensitive part of brain, drugs and chemicals that act on the brainstem and clinical benefit and risk assessment of such drugs and chemicals.

RESULTS

Findings have shown that brainstem regulates heartbeat, respiration and because it connects the brain and spinal cord, all the drugs that act on the spinal cord may overall affect the systems controlled by the spinal cord and brain. The message is sent and received by temporal lobe, occipital lobe, frontal lobe, parietal lobe and cerebellum.

CONCLUSION

Hence, the chemical functional groups of the brainstem and drugs acting on brainstem are complementary, and may produce either stimulation or depression of CNS.

Optimizing information processing in neuronal networks beyond critical states

Critical dynamics have been postulated as an ideal regime for neuronal networks in the brain, considering optimal dynamic range and information processing. Herein, we focused on how information entropy encoded in spatiotemporal activity patterns may vary in critical networks. We employed branching process based models to investigate how entropy can be embedded in spatiotemporal patterns. We determined that the information capacity of critical networks may vary depending on the manipulation of microscopic parameters. Specifically, the mean number of connections governed the number of spatiotemporal patterns in the networks. These findings are compatible with those of the real neuronal networks observed in specific brain circuitries, where critical behavior is necessary for the optimal dynamic range response but the uncertainty provided by high entropy as coded by spatiotemporal patterns is not required. With this, we were able to reveal that information processing can be optimized in neuronal networks beyond critical states.

Diversity of molecularly defined spinal interneurons engaged in mammalian locomotor pattern generation

Mapping the expression of transcription factors in the mouse spinal cord has identified ten progenitor domains, four of which are cardinal classes of molecularly defined, ventrally located interneurons that are integrated in the locomotor circuitry. This review focuses on the properties of these interneuronal populations and their contribution to hindlimb locomotor central pattern generation. Interneuronal populations are categorized based on their excitatory or inhibitory functions and their axonal projections as predictors of their role in locomotor rhythm generation and coordination. The synaptic connectivity and functions of these interneurons in the locomotor central pattern generators (CPGs) have been assessed by correlating their activity patterns with motor output responses to rhythmogenic neurochemicals and sensory and descending fibers stimulations as well as analyzing kinematic gait patterns in adult mice. The observed complex organization of interneurons in the locomotor CPG circuitry, some with seemingly similar physiological functions, reflects the intricate repertoire associated with mammalian motor control and is consistent with high transcriptional heterogeneity arising from cardinal interneuronal classes. This review discusses insights derived from recent studies to describe innovative approaches and limitations in experimental model systems and to identify missing links in current investigational enterprise.

Modular organization of the multipartite central pattern generator for turtle rostral scratch: knee-related interneurons during deletions

Central pattern generators (CPGs) are neuronal networks in the spinal cord that generate rhythmic patterns of motor activity in the absence of movement-related sensory feedback. For many vertebrate rhythmic behaviors, CPGs generate normal patterns of motor neuron activities as well as variations of the normal patterns, termed deletions, in which bursts in one or more motor nerves are absent from one or more cycles of the rhythm. Prior work with hip-extensor deletions during turtle rostral scratch supports hypotheses of hip-extensor interneurons in a hip-extensor module and of hip-flexor interneurons in a hip-flexor module. We present here single-unit interneuronal recording data that support hypotheses of knee-extensor interneurons in a knee-extensor module and of knee-flexor interneurons in a knee-flexor module. Members of knee-related modules are not members of hip-related modules and vice versa. These results in turtle provide experimental support at the single-unit interneuronal level for the organizational concept that the rostral-scratch CPG for the turtle hindlimb is multipartite, that is, composed of more than two modules. This work, when combined with experimental and computational work in other vertebrates, does not support the classical view that the vertebrate limb CPG is bipartite with only two modules, one controlling all the flexors of the limb and the other controlling all the extensors of the limb. Instead, these results support the general principle that spinal CPGs are multipartite.

Decoding the organization of spinal circuits that control locomotion

Unravelling the functional operation of neuronal networks and linking cellular activity to specific behavioural outcomes are among the biggest challenges in neuroscience. In this broad field of research, substantial progress has been made in studies of the spinal networks that control locomotion. Through united efforts using electrophysiological and molecular genetic network approaches and behavioural studies in phylogenetically diverse experimental models, the organization of locomotor networks has begun to be decoded. The emergent themes from this research are that the locomotor networks have a modular organization with distinct transmitter and molecular codes and that their organization is reconfigured with changes to the speed of locomotion or changes in gait.