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Machado G, Burns M. Reproductive biology of harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones): a review of a rapidly evolving research field. Curr Zool 2024; 70:115-135. [PMID: 38476141 PMCID: PMC10926269 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Harvestmen are a major arachnid order that has experienced a dramatic increase in biological knowledge in the 21st century. The publication of the book Harvestmen: The Biology of Opiliones in 2007 stimulated the development of many behavioral studies. Although the book is relatively recent, our understanding of the reproductive biology of harvestmen is already outdated due to the fast accumulation of new data. Our goal is to provide an updated review of the subject to serve as a benchmark for the following years. In the pre-copulatory phase, we explore the evolution of facultative parthenogenesis, the factors that may affect the types of mating system, and the role of nuptial gifts in courtship. Regarding the copulatory phase, harvestmen are unique arachnids because they have aflagellate spermatozoa and a penis with complex morphology. We discuss the implications of these two features for sperm competition and cryptic female choice. In the post-copulatory phase, we connect oviposition site selection and climate conditions to the widespread occurrence of resource defense polygyny, alternative reproductive tactics, and sexual dimorphism in several clades of tropical harvestmen. Finally, we present the different forms of parental care in the order, and discuss the benefits and costs of this behavior, which can be performed either by females or males. Throughout the review, we indicate gaps in our knowledge and subjects that deserve further studies. Hopefully, the information synthesized here will stimulate researchers worldwide to embrace harvestmen as a study system and to improve our effort to unravel the mysteries of their reproductive biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glauco Machado
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mercedes Burns
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Machado G, Macedo-Rego RC. Benefits and costs of female and male care in amphibians: a meta-analytical approach. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231759. [PMID: 37935362 PMCID: PMC10645127 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The origin of parental care is a central question in evolutionary biology, and understating the evolution of this behaviour requires quantifying benefits and costs. To address this subject, we conducted a meta-analysis on amphibians, a group in which parental care has evolved multiple times. We found that both male and female parents increase egg survival, regardless of whether the breeding site is concealed or exposed. Parental care also increases survival and growth of tadpoles and juveniles, independent of the caring sex. However, parental care reduces parental body condition, particularly when parents remain stationary near the offspring. Females tend to experience higher reproductive costs, but sample size is restricted to few species. In some frog species, paternal care increases male reproductive success because females prefer caring males. The benefits of parental care in amphibians resembles those reported for arthropods but differ from fish, in which parental care does not improve offspring survival. Moreover, the decrease in body condition, which is not found in fish, is influenced by the form of parental care, suggesting a trade-off between caring and foraging, as already reported for certain arthropods. Finally, the reproductive costs of parental care for both sexes remain unexplored and deserve further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glauco Machado
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renato C. Macedo-Rego
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Rojas A, Muniz DG, Solano‐Brenes D, Machado G. Nest‐site selection in a neotropical arachnid with exclusive male care: Proximate cues and adaptive meaning. Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Rojas
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
- Veragua Foundation Limón Costa Rica
| | - Danilo G. Muniz
- Departamento de Ecologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Diego Solano‐Brenes
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
| | - Glauco Machado
- Departamento de Ecologia Instituto de Biociências Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo Brazil
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García-Hernández S, Machado G. ‘Tail’ autotomy and consequent stinger loss decrease predation success in scorpions. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Rojas A, Solano-Brenes D, Muniz DG, Machado G. Gone with the rain: negative effects of rainfall on male reproductive success in a nest-building arachnid. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractIn nest-building species, offspring survival and reproductive success of parental individuals are strongly influenced by nest quality. Thus, quantifying the influence of abiotic conditions on nest integrity is important to predict the effects of weather variability on the fitness of parental individuals. Here, we investigated how rainfall affects nest integrity and how nest integrity influences males’ attractiveness and nest tenure. Our study species was the harvestman Quindina limbata, in which males build mud nests on fallen logs and protect the eggs against predators and fungi. Our data set comprises 12 months of regular inspections of 149 nests in a Costa Rican rainforest. We found that almost 50% of the nests were destroyed by rainfall. The drag force caused by rainfall running on the fallen log surface negatively affected nest integrity. Fungi cover on nests was influenced by an interaction between rainfall and nest position on the fallen log. Irrespective of their body size, males in nests with high integrity received more eggs than males in nests with low integrity. Fungi cover did not influence the number of eggs received by the males. Finally, nest integrity and fungi cover did not affect nest tenure, but males that did not receive eggs for a long time tended to abandon their nests. Considering that intense rainfall occurs all year long in tropical forests, males should build their nests in protected sites that preserve nest structure. Protected sites may keep nest structure better preserved, improve offspring survival, attract more females, and increase males’ reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Rojas
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Sede Rodrigo Facio, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, San José, Costa Rica
- Veragua Foundation for Rainforest Research, Limón, Costa Rica
| | - Diego Solano-Brenes
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Sede Rodrigo Facio, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Danilo G Muniz
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav., São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Glauco Machado
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav., São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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The good fathers: efficiency of male care and the protective role of foster parents in a Neotropical arachnid. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Santos ESA, Bueno PP, Gilbert JDJ, Machado G. Macroecology of parental care in arthropods: higher mortality risk leads to higher benefits of offspring protection in tropical climates. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2016; 92:1688-1701. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo S. A. Santos
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências; Universidade de São Paulo; Rua do Matão, travessa 14, n° 101, Cid. Universitária 05508-090 São Paulo Brazil
- BECO do Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências; Universidade de São Paulo; Rua do Matão, travessa 14, n° 101, Cid. Universitária 05508-090 São Paulo Brazil
| | - Pedro P. Bueno
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências; Universidade de São Paulo; Rua do Matão, travessa 14, n° 101, Cid. Universitária 05508-090 São Paulo Brazil
| | | | - Glauco Machado
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências; Universidade de São Paulo; Rua do Matão, travessa 14, n° 101, Cid. Universitária 05508-090 São Paulo Brazil
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Machado G, Buzatto BA, García-Hernández S, Macías-Ordóñez R. Macroecology of Sexual Selection: A Predictive Conceptual Framework for Large-Scale Variation in Reproductive Traits. Am Nat 2016; 188 Suppl 1:S8-S27. [DOI: 10.1086/687575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Muniz DG, Machado G. Experimental limitation of oviposition sites affects the mating system of an arachnid with resource defence polygyny. Anim Behav 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Nazareth TM, Machado G. Egg Production Constrains Chemical Defenses in a Neotropical Arachnid. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134908. [PMID: 26331946 PMCID: PMC4557954 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Female investment in large eggs increases the demand for fatty acids, which are allocated for yolk production. Since the biosynthetic pathway leading to fatty acids uses the same precursors used in the formation of polyketides, allocation trade-offs are expected to emerge. Therefore, egg production should constrain the investment in chemical defenses based on polyketides, such as benzoquinones. We tested this hypothesis using the harvestman Acutiosoma longipes, which produces large eggs and releases benzoquinones as chemical defense. We predicted that the amount of secretion released by ovigerous females (OFs) would be smaller than that of non-ovigerous females (NOF). We also conducted a series of bioassays in the field and in the laboratory to test whether egg production renders OFs more vulnerable to predation. OFs produce less secretion than NOFs, which is congruent with the hypothesis that egg production constrains the investment in chemical defenses. Results of the bioassays show that the secretion released by OFs is less effective in deterring potential predators (ants and spiders) than the secretion released by NOFs. In conclusion, females allocate resources to chemical defenses in a way that preserves a primary biological function related to reproduction. However, the trade-off between egg and secretion production makes OFs vulnerable to predators. We suggest that egg production is a critical moment in the life of harvestman females, representing perhaps the highest cost of reproduction in the group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taís M. Nazareth
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia, Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav. 14, no. 321, São Paulo, SP, 05508–900, Brazil
| | - Glauco Machado
- LAGE do Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav. 14, no. 321, São Paulo, SP, 05508–900, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Buzatto BA, Machado G. Male dimorphism and alternative reproductive tactics in harvestmen (Arachnida: Opiliones). Behav Processes 2014; 109 Pt A:2-13. [PMID: 24983786 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Strong sexual selection may lead small males or males in poor condition to adopt alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) as a way to avoid the risk of being completely excluded from the mating pool. ARTs, sometimes accompanying morphological dimorphism among males, are taxonomically widespread, especially common in arthropods. Here we review the current knowledge on ARTs and male dimorphism in a diverse but relatively overlooked group of arachnids, the order Opiliones, popularly known as harvestmen or daddy long-legs. We begin with a summary of harvestman mating systems, followed by a review of the two lines of evidence for the presence of ARTs in the group: (1) morphological data from natural populations and museum collections; and (2) behavioral information from field studies. Despite receiving less attention than spiders, scorpions and insects, our review shows that harvestmen are an exciting group of organisms that are potentially great models for sexual selection studies focused on ARTs. We also suggest that investigating the proximate mechanisms underlying male dimorphism in the order would be especially important. New research on ARTs and male dimorphism will have implications for our understanding of the evolution of mating systems, sperm competition, and polyandry. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Neotropical Behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno A Buzatto
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology (M092), The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.
| | - Glauco Machado
- Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav. 14, no. 321, Cidade Universitária, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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