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Grzegorczyk E, Caizergues A, Eraud C, Francesiaz C, Le Rest K, Guillemain M. Demographic and evolutionary consequences of hunting of wild birds. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1298-1313. [PMID: 38409953 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Hunting has a long tradition in human evolutionary history and remains a common leisure activity or an important source of food. Herein, we first briefly review the literature on the demographic consequences of hunting and associated analytical methods. We then address the question of potential selective hunting and its possible genetic/evolutionary consequences. Birds have historically been popular models for demographic studies, and the huge amount of census and ringing data accumulated over the last century has paved the way for research about the demographic effects of harvesting. By contrast, the literature on the evolutionary consequences of harvesting is dominated by studies on mammals (especially ungulates) and fish. In these taxa, individuals selected for harvest often have particular traits such as large body size or extravagant secondary sexual characters (e.g. antlers, horns, etc.). Our review shows that targeting individuals according to such genetically heritable traits can exert strong selective pressures and alter the evolutionary trajectory of populations for these or correlated traits. Studies focusing on the evolutionary consequences of hunting in birds are extremely rare, likely because birds within populations appear much more similar, and do not display individual differences to the same extent as many mammals and fishes. Nevertheless, even without conscious choice by hunters, there remains the potential for selection through hunting in birds, for example by genetically inherited traits such as personality or pace-of-life. We emphasise that because so many bird species experience high hunting pressure, the possible selective effect of harvest in birds and its evolutionary consequences deserves far more attention, and that hunting may be one major driver of bird evolutionary trajectories that should be carefully considered in wildlife management schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilienne Grzegorczyk
- Office Français de la Biodiversité, Service Conservation et Gestion Durable des Espèces Exploitées, 405 Route de Prissé-la-Charrière, Villiers-en-Bois, 79360, France
| | - Alain Caizergues
- Office Français de la Biodiversité, Service Conservation et Gestion Durable des Espèces Exploitées, 08 Bd A. Einstein, CS42355, Nantes Cedex 3, 44323, France
| | - Cyril Eraud
- Office Français de la Biodiversité, Service Conservation et Gestion des Espèces à Enjeux, 405 Route de Prissé-la-Charrière, Villiers-en-Bois, 79360, France
| | - Charlotte Francesiaz
- Office Français de la Biodiversité, Service Conservation et Gestion Durable des Espèces Exploitées, 147 Avenue de Lodève, Juvignac, 34990, France
| | - Kévin Le Rest
- Office Français de la Biodiversité, Service Conservation et Gestion Durable des Espèces Exploitées, 08 Bd A. Einstein, CS42355, Nantes Cedex 3, 44323, France
| | - Matthieu Guillemain
- Office Français de la Biodiversité, Service Conservation et Gestion Durable des Espèces Exploitées, La Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, Arles, 13200, France
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Deere JA, Berg I, Roth G, Smallegange IM. A modeling exercise to show why population models should incorporate distinct life histories of dispersers. POPUL ECOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/1438-390x.12074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacques A. Deere
- Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Ilona Berg
- Department of Animal Ecology Vrije Universiteit, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Gregory Roth
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research Basel Switzerland
| | - Isabel M. Smallegange
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands
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3
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How intra-stage and inter-stage competition affect overcompensation in density and hydra effects in single-species, stage-structured models. THEOR ECOL-NETH 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12080-020-00488-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Felmy A, Weissert N, Travis J, Jokela J. Mate availability determines use of alternative reproductive phenotypes in hermaphrodites. Behav Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/araa046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
In many species, individuals can employ alternative reproductive phenotypes, with profound consequences for individual fitness and population dynamics. This is particularly relevant for self-compatible hermaphrodites, which have exceptionally many reproductive options. Here we investigated the occurrence of reproductive phenotypes in the simultaneously hermaphroditic freshwater snail Radix balthica under experimentally simulated conditions of low versus moderate population density. We captured all mating behavior on camera and measured individual female lifetime reproductive success. We found every possible reproductive phenotype: (1) both male and female (i.e., truly hermaphroditic) reproduction, (2) purely female and (3) purely male reproduction, (4) male reproduction combined with self-fertilization and (5) female mating activity, (6) pure self-fertilization without mating and (7–8) two types of reproductive failure. Variation in alternative reproductive phenotypes was explained by mate availability (10.8%) and individual condition, approximated by a snail’s mean daily growth rate (17.5%). Increased mate availability resulted in a lower diversity of reproductive phenotypes, in particular increasing the frequency of true hermaphrodites. However, it lowered phenotype-specific fecundities and hence reduced the population growth rate. Snails in better condition were more likely to reproduce as true hermaphrodites or pure females, whereas low-condition snails tended to suffer reproductive failure. Overall, we show substantial variation in alternative reproductive phenotypes in a hermaphrodite, which is possibly in part maintained by fluctuations in population density and thus mate availability, and by variation in individual condition. We also provide evidence of an almost 2-fold increase in clutch size that can be ascribed specifically to mating as a female.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Felmy
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, EAWAG, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zurich, D-USYS, Institute of Integrative Biology, Universitätstrasse 16, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Nora Weissert
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, EAWAG, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Joseph Travis
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Jukka Jokela
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, EAWAG, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- ETH Zurich, D-USYS, Institute of Integrative Biology, Universitätstrasse 16, Zurich, Switzerland
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Fisher DN, Pruitt JN. Insights from the study of complex systems for the ecology and evolution of animal populations. Curr Zool 2020; 66:1-14. [PMID: 32467699 PMCID: PMC7245006 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Populations of animals comprise many individuals, interacting in multiple contexts, and displaying heterogeneous behaviors. The interactions among individuals can often create population dynamics that are fundamentally deterministic yet display unpredictable dynamics. Animal populations can, therefore, be thought of as complex systems. Complex systems display properties such as nonlinearity and uncertainty and show emergent properties that cannot be explained by a simple sum of the interacting components. Any system where entities compete, cooperate, or interfere with one another may possess such qualities, making animal populations similar on many levels to complex systems. Some fields are already embracing elements of complexity to help understand the dynamics of animal populations, but a wider application of complexity science in ecology and evolution has not occurred. We review here how approaches from complexity science could be applied to the study of the interactions and behavior of individuals within animal populations and highlight how this way of thinking can enhance our understanding of population dynamics in animals. We focus on 8 key characteristics of complex systems: hierarchy, heterogeneity, self-organization, openness, adaptation, memory, nonlinearity, and uncertainty. For each topic we discuss how concepts from complexity theory are applicable in animal populations and emphasize the unique insights they provide. We finish by outlining outstanding questions or predictions to be evaluated using behavioral and ecological data. Our goal throughout this article is to familiarize animal ecologists with the basics of each of these concepts and highlight the new perspectives that they could bring to variety of subfields.
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Affiliation(s)
- David N Fisher
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jonathan N Pruitt
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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Smallegange IM, Rhebergen FT, Stewart KA. Cross-level considerations for explaining selection pressures and the maintenance of genetic variation in condition-dependent male morphs. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 36:66-73. [PMID: 31499417 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2019.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Condition-dependent expression of alternative male morphologies (AMMs) exists in many arthropods. Understanding their coexistence requires answering (at least) two questions: (i) what are the ecological selection pressures that maintain condition-dependent plasticity of AMM expression, and (ii) what maintains the associated genetic variation? Focusing on acarid mites, we show that the questions should not be conflated. We argue how, instead, answers should be sought by testing phenotype-level (question 1) or genotype-level (question 2) hypotheses. We illustrate that energy allocation restrictions and physiological trade-offs are likely to play a crucial role in AMM expression in acarid mites. We thus conclude that these aspects require specific attention in identifying selection pressures maintaining condition-dependent plasticity, and evolutionary processes that maintain genetic variation in condition-dependent phenotypic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel M Smallegange
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Flor T Rhebergen
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kathryn A Stewart
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Alpedrinha J, R. Rodrigues L, Magalhães S, Abbott J. The virtues and limitations of exploring the eco‐evolutionary dynamics of sexually selected traits. OIKOS 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.06573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- João Alpedrinha
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, Univ. of Lisbon Edifício C2 PT‐1749‐016 Lisboa Portugal
| | - Leonor R. Rodrigues
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, Univ. of Lisbon Edifício C2 PT‐1749‐016 Lisboa Portugal
- Stockholm Univ Stockholm Sweden
| | - Sara Magalhães
- cE3c: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, Univ. of Lisbon Edifício C2 PT‐1749‐016 Lisboa Portugal
| | - Jessica Abbott
- Biology Dept, Section for Evolutionary Ecology, Lund Univ Lund Sweden
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8
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Et tu, brother? Kinship and increased nutrition lower the incidence of cannibalism in male bulb mites. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Stewart KA, Draaijer R, Kolasa MR, Smallegange IM. The role of genetic diversity in the evolution and maintenance of environmentally-cued, male alternative reproductive tactics. BMC Evol Biol 2019; 19:58. [PMID: 30777004 PMCID: PMC6379956 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-019-1385-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) are taxonomically pervasive strategies adopted by individuals to maximize reproductive success within populations. Even for conditionally-dependent traits, consensus postulates most ARTs involve both genetic and environmental interactions (GEIs), but to date, quantifying genetic variation underlying the threshold disposing an individual to switch phenotypes in response to an environmental cue has been a difficult undertaking. Our study aims to investigate the origins and maintenance of ARTs within environmentally disparate populations of the microscopic bulb mite, Rhizoglyphus robini, that express 'fighter' and 'scrambler' male morphs mediated by a complex combination of environmental and genetic factors. RESULTS Using never-before-published individual genetic profiling, we found all individuals across populations are highly inbred with the exception of scrambler males in stressed environments. In fact within the poor environment, scrambler males and females showed no significant difference in genetic differentiation (Fst) compared to all other comparisons, and although fighters were highly divergent from the rest of the population in both poor or rich environments (e.g., Fst, STRUCTURE), fighters demonstrated approximately three times less genetic divergence from the population in poor environments. AMOVA analyses further corroborated significant genetic differentiation across subpopulations, between morphs and sexes, and among subpopulations within each environment. CONCLUSION Our study provides new insights into the origin of ARTs in the bulb mite, highlighting the importance of GEIs: genetic correlations, epistatic interactions, and sex-specific inbreeding depression across environmental stressors. Asymmetric reproductive output, coupled with the purging of highly inbred individuals during environmental oscillations, also facilitates genetic variation within populations, despite evidence for strong directional selection. This cryptic genetic variation also conceivably facilitates stable population persistence even in the face of spatially or temporally unstable environmental challenges. Ultimately, understanding the genetic context that maintains thresholds, even for conditionally-dependent ARTs, will enhance our understanding of within population variation and our ability to predict responses to selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Stewart
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090 GE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - R Draaijer
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090 GE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M R Kolasa
- Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish Academy of Sciences, Slawkowska 17 St., 31-016, Krakow, Poland
| | - I M Smallegange
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090 GE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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10
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Van den Beuken TPG, Duinmeijer CC, Smallegange IM. Costs of weaponry: Unarmed males sire more offspring than armed males in a male-dimorphic mite. J Evol Biol 2018; 32:153-162. [PMID: 30422392 PMCID: PMC7379726 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Morphological structures used as weapons in male–male competition are not only costly to develop but are also probably costly to maintain during adulthood. Therefore, having weapons could reduce the energy available for other fitness‐enhancing actions, such as post‐copulatory investment. We tested the hypothesis that armed males make lower post‐copulatory investments than unarmed males, and that this difference will be most pronounced under food‐limited conditions. We performed two experiments using the male‐dimorphic bulb mite Rhizoglyphus robini, in which males are either armed “fighters” or unarmed “scramblers.” Firstly, we tested whether fighters and scramblers differed in their reproductive output after being starved or fed for 1 or 2 weeks. Secondly, we measured the reproductive output of scramblers and fighters (starved or fed) after one, two or three consecutive matings. Scramblers sired more offspring than fighters after 1 week, but scramblers and fighters only sired a few offspring after 2 weeks. Scramblers also sired more offspring than fighters at the first mating, and males rarely sired offspring after consecutive matings. Contrary to our hypothesis, the fecundity of starved and fed males did not differ. The higher reproductive output of scramblers suggests that, regardless of nutritional state, scramblers make larger post‐copulatory investments than fighters. Alternatively, (cryptic) female choice generally favours scramblers. Why the morphs differed in their reproductive output is unclear. Neither morph performed well relatively late in life or after multiple matings. It remains to be investigated to what extent the apparent scrambler advantage contributes to the maintenance and evolution of male morph expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom P G Van den Beuken
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chris C Duinmeijer
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Isabel M Smallegange
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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11
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Male nutritional history affects female fecundity in a male-dimorphic mite: Evidence for a nuptial gift? Evol Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-018-9940-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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12
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Hamel S, Gaillard JM, Yoccoz NG. Introduction to: Individual heterogeneity - the causes and consequences of a fundamental biological process. OIKOS 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.05222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Hamel
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology; UiT The Arctic Univ. of Norway; Tromsø Norway
| | | | - Nigel G. Yoccoz
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology; UiT The Arctic Univ. of Norway; Tromsø Norway
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13
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Hamel S, Gaillard JM, Yoccoz NG, Bassar RD, Bouwhuis S, Caswell H, Douhard M, Gangloff EJ, Gimenez O, Lee PC, Smallegange IM, Steiner UK, Vedder O, Vindenes Y. General conclusion to the special issue Moving forward on individual heterogeneity. OIKOS 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.05223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Hamel
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology; UiT The Arctic Univ. of Norway; Tromsø Norway
| | | | - Nigel G. Yoccoz
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology; UiT The Arctic Univ. of Norway; Tromsø Norway
| | - Ron D. Bassar
- Dept of Biology; Williams College; Williamstown MA USA
| | - Sandra Bouwhuis
- Inst of Avian Research ‘Vogelwarte Helgoland’; Wilhelmshaven Germany
| | - Hal Caswell
- Inst. for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics; Univ. of Amsterdam; Amsterdam the Netherlands
| | | | - Eric J. Gangloff
- Station d’Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS; Moulis France
| | - Olivier Gimenez
- CEFE UMR 5175; CNRS, Univ. de Montpellier, Univ. Paul-Valéry Montpellier; Montpellier France
| | - Phylis C. Lee
- Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences; Univ. of Stirling; Stirling UK
| | - Isabel M. Smallegange
- Inst. for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics; Univ. of Amsterdam; Amsterdam the Netherlands
| | - Ulrich K. Steiner
- Max-Planck Odense Centre on the Biodemography of Aging, and Dept of Biology; Odense Denmark
| | - Oscar Vedder
- Inst of Avian Research ‘Vogelwarte Helgoland’; Wilhelmshaven Germany
- Groningen Inst. for Evolutionary Life Sciences; Univ. of Groningen; Groningen the Netherlands
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Deere JA, Coulson T, Cubaynes S, Smallegange IM. Unsuccessful dispersal affects life history characteristics of natal populations: The role of dispersal related variation in vital rates. Ecol Modell 2017; 366:37-47. [PMID: 31007343 PMCID: PMC6472616 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Individual costs associated with dispersal morph expression carry over to negatively impact the natal population. Different dispersal scenarios and dispersal expression increase generation time but population growth rate declines. Increasing generation time is due to the addition of a life stage and to other life-history effects of the dispersal stage. We suggest that dispersing individuals that fail to disperse may affect the population dynamics of persistent natal populations.
Individuals that disperse from one habitat to another has consequences for individual fitness, population dynamics and gene flow. The fitness benefits accrued in the new habitat are traded off against costs associated with dispersal. Most studies focus on costs at settlement and effects on settlement populations; the influence of dispersal to natal populations is assessed by monitoring change in numbers due to emigration. However, the extent to which natal populations are affected when individuals that invest in dispersal fail to disperse/emigrate is unclear. Here, we use an Integral Projection Model (IPM) to assess how developing into a disperser affects natal population structure and growth. We do so using the bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus robini) as a study system. Bulb mites, in unfavourable environments, develop into a dispersal (deutonymph) stage during ontogeny; these individuals are called dispersers with individuals not developing into this stage called non-dispersers. We varied disperser expression and parameterised IPMs to describe three simulations of successful and unsuccessful dispersal: (i) ‘no dispersal’ - dispersal stage is excluded and demographic data are from non-disperser individuals; (ii) ‘false dispersal’ - dispersal stage included and demographic data from non-disperser individuals are used; (iii) ‘true dispersal’ - dispersal stage included and demographic data are from individuals that go through the dispersal stage and from non-disperser individuals. We found that the type of dispersal simulation (no dispersal < false dispersal < true dispersal) and disperser expression increases generation time and reduces lifetime reproductive success and population growth rate. Our findings show that disperser individuals that fail to leave, can change the structure and growth of natal populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques A Deere
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Tinbergen Building, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK.,Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94248, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tim Coulson
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Tinbergen Building, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK
| | - Sarah Cubaynes
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, The Tinbergen Building, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK
| | - Isabel M Smallegange
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94248, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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