1
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Yu F, Zhang M, Yang Y, Wang Y, Yi X. Seed size and dispersal mode select mast seeding in perennial plants. Integr Zool 2024. [PMID: 39048928 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Reproduction by perennial plants varies from being relatively constant over years to the production of massive and synchronous seed crops at irregular intervals, a reproductive strategy called mast seeding. The sources of interspecific differences in the extent of interannual variation in seed production are largely unknown. We conducted a global meta-analysis of animal-dispersed species to quantify how the interannual variability in seed crops produced by plants can be explained by the seed mass, dispersal mode, phylogeny, and climate. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the interannual variations in seed production and seed mass tended to be similar in related species due to their shared evolution. The interannual variation in seed production was 1.22 times higher in synzoochorous species dispersed by scatter-hoarders compared with endozoochorous species dispersed by frugivores. Furthermore, the production of small seeds was associated with higher interannual variation in seed production, although synzoochorous species produced larger seeds than endozoochorous species. Precipitation rather than temperature had a significant positive effect on the interannual variation in seed production. The seed mass and dispersal mode contributed more to the interannual variation in seed production than phylogeny, climate, and fruit type. Our findings support a long-standing hypothesis that interspecific variation in the masting intensity is largely shaped by interactions between plants and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Yu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
- School of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, China
| | - Mingming Zhang
- College of Agriculture, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
- Henan Dabieshan National Field Observation and Research Station of Forest Ecosystem, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yueqin Yang
- College of Agriculture, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
| | - Yang Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Xianfeng Yi
- School of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, China
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2
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Fernandes TV, Fernandes OL, Gomes IJMT, Solar RRC, Campos RI. Ant identity determines the fungi richness and composition of a myrmecochorous seed. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0293377. [PMID: 38451997 PMCID: PMC10919741 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Myrmecochory-seed dispersal by ants-is a mutualistic interaction in which ants attracted by seed appendices take them away from the parental plant location, where seeds usually have better development odds. Not all ant species benefit plants, and the mechanisms of those divergent outcomes are still unclear, especially from the perspective of microbial third parties. Here, we explore the effects of seed manipulation on fungi communities promoted by two ant species with contrasting effects on seed germination and antimicrobial cleaning strategies. We hypothesize that: i) fungi richness is higher in seeds manipulated by Acromyrmex subterraneus (species that negatively affect seed germination), followed by unmanipulated seeds and seeds manipulated by Atta sexdens (ant species that increase seed germination) and ii) seeds manipulated by A. sexdens, Ac. subterraneus and unmanipulated seeds present dissimilar fungi compositions. We identified fungal morphotypes in three groups of seeds: i) manipulated by A. sexdens; ii) manipulated by Ac. subterraneus; iii) unmanipulated. Seeds manipulated by Ac. subterraneus exhibited higher fungal richness than those manipulated by A. sexdens and unmanipulated seeds, indicating that the ant species known to impair germination increases the fungal load on seeds. Additionally, we found that A. sexdens ants were unable to reduce fungal richness compared to unmanipulated seeds. Furthermore, fungal composition differed among all three treatments. Our results underscore the significance of ant species identity in shaping the fungal communities associated with myrmecochorous seeds. Given the potential influence of microbial infection on seed fate, we suggest considering manipulation strategies when evaluating the overall quality of an ant as a seed disperser.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago V. Fernandes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Conservação e Manejo da Vida Silvestre, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Otavio L. Fernandes
- Departamento de Entomologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Inácio J. M. T. Gomes
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Conservação e Manejo da Vida Silvestre, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil
| | - Ricardo R. C. Solar
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Conservação e Manejo da Vida Silvestre, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ricardo I. Campos
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil
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3
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Leal LC, Koski MH. Linking pollen limitation and seed dispersal effectiveness. Ecol Lett 2024; 27:e14347. [PMID: 38073068 DOI: 10.1111/ele.14347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
Seed production and dispersal are crucial ecological processes impacting plant demography, species distributions and community assembly. Plant-animal interactions commonly mediate both seed production and seed dispersal, but current research often examines pollination and seed dispersal separately, which hinders our understanding of how pollination services affect downstream dispersal services. To fill this gap, we propose a conceptual framework exploring how pollen limitation can impact the effectiveness of seed dispersal for endozoochorous and myrmecochorous plant species. We summarize the quantitative and qualitative effects of pollen limitation on plant reproduction and use Optimal Foraging Theory to predict its impact on the foraging behaviour of seed dispersers. In doing so, we offer a new framework that poses numerous hypotheses and empirical tests to investigate links between pollen limitation and seed dispersal effectiveness and, consequently, post-dispersal ecological processes occurring at different levels of biological organization. Finally, considering the importance of pollination and seed dispersal outcomes to plant eco-evolutionary dynamics, we discussed the implications of our framework for future studies exploring the demographic and evolutionary impacts of pollen limitation for animal-dispersed plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura C Leal
- Departamento de Ecologia e Biologia Evolutiva, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Matthew H Koski
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
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4
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Nathan P, Economo EP, Guénard B, Simonsen AK, Frederickson ME. Generalized mutualisms promote range expansion in both plant and ant partners. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231083. [PMID: 37700642 PMCID: PMC10498038 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutualism improves organismal fitness, but strong dependence on another species can also limit a species' ability to thrive in a new range if its partner is absent. We assembled a large, global dataset on mutualistic traits and species ranges to investigate how multiple plant-animal and plant-microbe mutualisms affect the spread of legumes and ants to novel ranges. We found that generalized mutualisms increase the likelihood that a species establishes and thrives beyond its native range, whereas specialized mutualisms either do not affect or reduce non-native spread. This pattern held in both legumes and ants, indicating that specificity between mutualistic partners is a key determinant of ecological success in a new habitat. Our global analysis shows that mutualism plays an important, if often overlooked, role in plant and insect invasions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Nathan
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto M5S 3B2, Ontario, Canada
| | - Evan P. Economo
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Benoit Guénard
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
| | - Anna K. Simonsen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th St, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Megan E. Frederickson
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto M5S 3B2, Ontario, Canada
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5
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Bona K, Delabie JH, Cazetta E. Effects of anthropogenic disturbances on diaspore removal by ants: A meta-analysis. ACTA OECOLOGICA 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actao.2023.103893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
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6
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Pereyra M, Zeballos SR, Galetto L, Oliveira PS. Influence of secondary dispersal by ants on invasive processes of exotic species with fleshy fruits. Biol Invasions 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-022-02845-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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7
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Ruzi SA, Suarez AV. Seed fate in ant‐mediated dispersal: Seed dispersal effectiveness in the
Ectatomma ruidum
(Formicidae)—
Zanthoxylum ekmanii
(Rutaceae) system. Biotropica 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.13098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Selina A. Ruzi
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois, Urbana‐Champaign Champaign Illinois USA
| | - Andrew V. Suarez
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois, Urbana‐Champaign Champaign Illinois USA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior, and Department of Entomology University of Illinois, Urbana‐Champaign Champaign Illinois USA
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8
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Donoso I, Fricke EC, Hervías-Parejo S, Rogers HS, Traveset A. Drivers of Ecological and Evolutionary Disruptions in the Seed Dispersal Process: Research Trends and Biases. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.794481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
As the sole opportunity for most plants to move, seed dispersal influences the biodiversity and functioning of plant communities. Global change drivers have the potential to disrupt seed dispersal processes, affecting plant communities and ecosystem functions. Even though much information is available on the effects of seed dispersal disruption (SDD), we still lack a comprehensive understanding of its main causes at a global scale, as well as the potential knowledge gaps derived from research biases. Here we present a systematic review of biotic and abiotic SDDs to ascertain the global change drivers addressed, dispersal modes impacted, plant processes affected, and spatial focus of existing research on this topic up-to-date. Although there are many modes of dispersal and global change drivers in temperate and tropical ecosystems worldwide, research efforts have predominantly addressed the effect of alien species for biotic seed dispersal in temperate systems and oceanic islands as well as how defaunation of bird or mammal dispersers has affected seed removal in the Neotropics. SDD studies were also biased toward forest ecosystems, with few in shrublands or grasslands. Finally, the effects of climate change, ecological consequences at the whole community level, and evolutionary changes were largely unrepresented in SDD studies. These trends are likely due to a combination of true geographic and ecological patterns in seed dispersal and global change and bias in research focus. We conclude that increased research investment in the less-studied systems and a better understanding of potential synergies and feedback between multiple global change drivers will be important to forecast the threats to plant biodiversity and those ecosystem functions derived from seed dispersal in the Anthropocene.
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9
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Schuett GW, Reiserer RS, Salywon AM, Blackwell S, Hodgson WC, Foster CD, Hall J, Zach R, Davis MA, Greene HW. Secondary Seed Ingestion in Snakes: Germination Frequency and Rate, Seedling Viability, and Implications for Dispersal in Nature. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.761293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of vertebrate animals as seed dispersers (zoochory) has received increasing attention from researchers over the past 20 years, yet one category in particular, diploendozoochory, remains understudied. As the term implies, this is a two-phase seed dispersal system whereby a secondary seed predator (carnivorous vertebrate) consumes a primary seed predator or granivore (rodent and bird) with undamaged seeds in their digestive tract (mouth, cheek pouch, crop, stomach, or other organ), which are subsequently eliminated with feces. Surprisingly, although snakes are among the most abundant predators of granivorous vertebrates, they are the least studied group insofar as our knowledge of seed rescue and secondary dispersal in a diploendozoochorous system. Here, using live snake subjects of the Sonoran Desert (one viperid and two colubrid species) and seeds of the Foothill Palo Verde (Parkinsonia microphylla), a dominant tree of the same region, we experimentally tested germination frequency and rate, and seedling viability. Specifically, to mimic rodents with seed-laden cheek pouches, we tested whether wild-collected P. microphylla seeds placed in the abdomen of thawed laboratory mice and ingested by the snakes would retain their germination viability. Second, we examined whether seeds exposed to gut transit germinated at a greater frequency and rate than the controls. While we found strong statistical support for our first hypothesis, both aspects of the second one were not significant. Accordingly, we provide an explanation for these results based on specific life-history traits (dormant and non-dormant seeds) of P. microphylla. Our study provides support for the role of snakes as important agents of seed rescue and dispersal in nature, their potential as ecosystem engineers, and crucial evidence for the investment of field-based studies on diploendozoochorous systems in deserts and other ecosystems.
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10
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Rogers HS, Donoso I, Traveset A, Fricke EC. Cascading Impacts of Seed Disperser Loss on Plant Communities and Ecosystems. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY, EVOLUTION, AND SYSTEMATICS 2021. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012221-111742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Seed dispersal is key to the persistence and spread of plant populations. Because the majority of plant species rely on animals to disperse their seeds, global change drivers that directly affect animals can cause cascading impacts on plant communities. In this review, we synthesize studies assessing how disperser loss alters plant populations, community patterns, multitrophic interactions, and ecosystem functioning. We argue that the magnitude of risk to plants from disperser loss is shaped by the combination of a plant species’ inherent dependence on seed dispersal and the severity of the hazards faced by their dispersers. Because the factors determining a plant species’ risk of decline due to disperser loss can be related to traits of the plants and dispersers, our framework enables a trait-based understanding of change in plant community composition and ecosystem functioning. We discuss how interactions among plants, among dispersers, and across other trophic levels also mediate plant community responses, and we identify areas for future research to understand and mitigate the consequences of disperser loss on plants globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haldre S. Rogers
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Isabel Donoso
- Global Change Research Group, Mediterranean Institute for Advanced Studies, 07190 Esporles, Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Anna Traveset
- Global Change Research Group, Mediterranean Institute for Advanced Studies, 07190 Esporles, Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain
| | - Evan C. Fricke
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
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11
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Campagnoli ML, Christianini AV. Temporal consistency in interactions among birds, ants, and plants in a neotropical savanna. OIKOS 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.08231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana L. Campagnoli
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia e Recursos Naturais, Univ. Federal de São Carlos (UFSCar) São Carlos São Paulo Brazil
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12
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Queiroz ACM, Rabello AM, Lasmar CJ, Cuissi RG, Canedo-Júnior EO, Schmidt FA, Ribas CR. Diaspore Removal by Ants Does Not Reflect the Same Patterns of Ant Assemblages in Mining and Rehabilitation Areas. NEOTROPICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 50:335-348. [PMID: 33725288 DOI: 10.1007/s13744-021-00861-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Mining is responsible for drastic ecosystem changes and rehabilitation is used to promote the return of functions after these impacts. In this scenario, we investigated the responses of ant assemblages and diaspore removal by ants to the transformations caused by mining and rehabilitation predicting that (a) the increase in plant density (a proxy for mining intensity) led to an increase in ant richness, percentage of diaspores removed, and changes in species composition that in turn are correlated with changes in environmental variables; (b) the increase in vegetation structure (a proxy for rehabilitation ages) led to an increase in ant richness, percentage of diaspores removed, and changes in species composition that in turn are correlated with changes in environmental variables. Additionally, we also verified which functional groups were primarily responsible for diaspore removal. We sampled arboreal and epigeic ants, diaspore removal by ants, and environmental variables. We found that ant richness and diaspore removal in mining intensity gradient are positively correlated to plant density. Although vegetation structure is positively correlated with ant richness, we found no changes in diaspore removal in rehabilitation gradient. Epigeic omnivore and epigeic generalist predator ants were the most responsible for diaspore removal. Then, we observed that mining decreases ant richness, altering ant assemblages and their functions, and rehabilitation with exotic plants is ineffective to promote the colonization by the main diaspore-removing ants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antônio C M Queiroz
- Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Depto de Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, 37200-900, Brazil.
| | - Ananza M Rabello
- Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Depto de Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, 37200-900, Brazil
- Instituto de Estudos do Xingu, Univ Federal do Sul e Sudeste do Pará, São Félix do Xingu, PA, 68380-000, Brazil
| | - Chaim J Lasmar
- Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Depto de Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, 37200-900, Brazil
| | - Rafael G Cuissi
- Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Depto de Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, 37200-900, Brazil
- Instituto de Ciências Agrárias e Tecnológicas, Campus Universitário de Rondonópolis, Univ Federal do Mato Grosso, Rondonópolis, MT, 78735-901, Brazil
| | - Ernesto O Canedo-Júnior
- Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Depto de Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, 37200-900, Brazil
- Depto de Educação e Ciências Humanas, Univ do Estado de Minas Gerais - Unidade Poços de Caldas, Poços de Caldas, MG, 37714-620, Brazil
| | - Fernando A Schmidt
- Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Depto de Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, 37200-900, Brazil
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Natureza, Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Univ Federal do Acre, Rio Branco, AC, 69920-900, Brazil
| | - Carla R Ribas
- Lab de Ecologia de Formigas, Depto de Ecologia e Conservação, Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Univ Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG, 37200-900, Brazil
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13
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Aguiar JJM, Anjos DV, Carvalho RL, de Almeida W, Santos ACC, Santos JC. Plant richness drives ant diversity in
Eucalyptus
‐dominated landscape on Brazilian savanna. AUSTRAL ECOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.13060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas José Mendes Aguiar
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Entomologia Departamento de Agronomia Universidade Federal de Lavras Lavras Minas GeraisBrazil
| | - Diego V. Anjos
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia e Conservação de Recursos Naturais Instituto de Biologia Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia Minas GeraisBrazil
| | - Raquel L. Carvalho
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia e Conservação de Recursos Naturais Instituto de Biologia Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia Minas GeraisBrazil
| | - Wanessa de Almeida
- Departamento de Ecologia Universidade Federal de Sergipe Av. Marechal Rondon, s/n, Bairro Jardim Rosa Elze CEP: 49100‐000 São Cristóvão SergipeBrazil
| | | | - Jean Carlos Santos
- Departamento de Ecologia Universidade Federal de Sergipe Av. Marechal Rondon, s/n, Bairro Jardim Rosa Elze CEP: 49100‐000 São Cristóvão SergipeBrazil
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14
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15
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Ruzi SA, Zalamea P, Roche DP, Achury R, Dalling JW, Suarez AV. Can variation in seed removal patterns of Neotropical pioneer tree species be explained by local ant community composition? Biotropica 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Selina A. Ruzi
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
| | - Paul‐Camilo Zalamea
- Department of Integrative Biology University of South Florida Tampa Florida USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Ancon Republic of Panama
| | - Daniel P. Roche
- Wildlife and Fisheries Resources Program West Virginia University Morgantown West Virginia USA
| | - Rafael Achury
- Department of Entomology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
| | - James W. Dalling
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Ancon Republic of Panama
- Department of Plant Biology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
| | - Andrew V. Suarez
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
- Department of Entomology University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Behavior University of Illinois Urbana Illinois USA
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