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Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Mu D, Lu Y, Chen W, Zhang Y, Zhang R, Qin Y, Yuan J, Pan L, Tang Q. Selection of Reference Genes in Evodia rutaecarpa var. officinalis and Expression Patterns of Genes Involved in Its Limonin Biosynthesis. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3197. [PMID: 37765365 PMCID: PMC10534417 DOI: 10.3390/plants12183197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
E. rutaecarpa var. officinalis is a traditional Chinese medicinal plant known for its therapeutic effects, which encompass the promotion of digestion, the dispelling of cold, the alleviation of pain, and the exhibition of anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. The principal active component of this plant, limonin, is a potent triterpene compound with notable pharmacological activities. Despite its significance, the complete biosynthesis pathway of limonin in E. rutaecarpa var. officinalis remains incompletely understood, and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unexplored. The main purpose of this study was to screen the reference genes suitable for expression analysis in E. rutaecarpa var. officinalis, calculate the expression patterns of the genes in the limonin biosynthesis pathway, and identify the relevant enzyme genes related to limonin biosynthesis. The reference genes play a pivotal role in establishing reliable reference standards for normalizing the gene expression data, thereby ensuring precision and credibility in the biological research outcomes. In order to identify the optimal reference genes and gene expression patterns across the diverse tissues (e.g., roots, stems, leaves, and flower buds) and developmental stages (i.e., 17 July, 24 August, 1 September, and 24 October) of E. rutaecarpa var. officinalis, LC-MS was used to analyze the limonin contents in distinct tissue samples and developmental stages, and qRT-PCR technology was employed to investigate the expression patterns of the ten reference genes and eighteen genes involved in limonin biosynthesis. Utilizing a comprehensive analysis that integrated three software tools (GeNorm ver. 3.5, NormFinder ver. 0.953 and BestKeeper ver. 1.0) and Delta Ct method alongside the RefFinder website, the best reference genes were selected. Through the research, we determined that Act1 and UBQ served as the preferred reference genes for normalizing gene expression during various fruit developmental stages, while Act1 and His3 were optimal for different tissues. Using Act1 and UBQ as the reference genes, and based on the different fruit developmental stages, qRT-PCR analysis was performed on the pathway genes selected from the "full-length transcriptome + expression profile + metabolome" data in the limonin biosynthesis pathway of E. rutaecarpa var. officinalis. The findings indicated that there were consistent expression patterns of HMGCR, SQE, and CYP450 with fluctuations in the limonin contents, suggesting their potential involvement in the limonin biosynthesis of E. rutaecarpa var. officinalis. This study lays the foundation for further research on the metabolic pathway of limonin in E. rutaecarpa var. officinalis and provides reliable reference genes for other researchers to use for conducting expression analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhou
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
| | - Yuxiang Zhang
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
| | - Detian Mu
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
| | - Ying Lu
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
| | - Wenqiang Chen
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
| | - Yao Zhang
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
| | - Ruiying Zhang
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
| | - Ya Qin
- Guangxi Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plants, Nanning 530023, China;
| | - Jianhua Yuan
- Changsha Hemao Agricultural Development Co., Ltd., Ningxiang County, Changsha 410609, China;
| | - Limei Pan
- Guangxi Botanical Garden of Medicinal Plants, Nanning 530023, China;
| | - Qi Tang
- National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Botanical Functional Ingredients, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (Y.Z.); (Y.Z.); (D.M.); (Y.L.); (W.C.); (Y.Z.); (R.Z.)
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Han SY, Kim WY, Kim JS, Hwang I. Comparative transcriptomics reveals the role of altered energy metabolism in the establishment of single-cell C 4 photosynthesis in Bienertia sinuspersici. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1202521. [PMID: 37476170 PMCID: PMC10354284 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1202521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Single-cell C4 photosynthesis (SCC4) in terrestrial plants without Kranz anatomy involves three steps: initial CO2 fixation in the cytosol, CO2 release in mitochondria, and a second CO2 fixation in central chloroplasts. Here, we investigated how the large number of mechanisms underlying these processes, which occur in three different compartments, are orchestrated in a coordinated manner to establish the C4 pathway in Bienertia sinuspersici, a SCC4 plant. Leaves were subjected to transcriptome analysis at three different developmental stages. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that SCC4 cycle genes are coexpressed with genes regulating cyclic electron flow and amino/organic acid metabolism, two key processes required for the production of energy molecules in C3 plants. Comparative gene expression profiling of B. sinuspersici and three other species (Suaeda aralocaspica, Amaranthus hypochondriacus, and Arabidopsis thaliana) showed that the direction of metabolic flux was determined via an alteration in energy supply in peripheral chloroplasts and mitochondria via regulation of gene expression in the direction of the C4 cycle. Based on these results, we propose that the redox homeostasis of energy molecules via energy metabolism regulation is key to the establishment of the SCC4 pathway in B. sinuspersici.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Yun Han
- Department of Life Sciences, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Republic of Korea
| | - Woe-Yeon Kim
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21+) and Research Institute of Life Science, Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Sun Kim
- Genomic Division, Department of Agricultural Bio-Resources, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Jeonju, Republic of Korea
| | - Inhwan Hwang
- Department of Life Sciences, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Republic of Korea
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Liu H, Liu J, Chen P, Zhang X, Wang K, Lu J, Li Y. Selection and Validation of Optimal RT-qPCR Reference Genes for the Normalization of Gene Expression under Different Experimental Conditions in Lindera megaphylla. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:plants12112185. [PMID: 37299163 DOI: 10.3390/plants12112185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lindera megaphylla, a broad-leaved evergreen that is used as a landscape ornamental plant and medicinal plant, is an ecologically important and dominant tree species. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of its growth, development, and metabolism. The selection of suitable reference genes is critical for molecular biological analyses. To date, no research on reference genes as a foundation for gene expression analysis has been undertaken in L. megaphylla. In this study, 14 candidate genes were selected from the transcriptome database of L. megaphylla for RT-qPCR assay under different conditions. Results showed that helicase-15 and UBC28 were most stable in different tissues of seedlings and adult trees. For different leaf developmental stages, the best combination of reference genes was ACT7 and UBC36. UBC36 and TCTP were the best under cold treatment, while PAB2 and CYP20-2 were the best under heat treatment. Finally, a RT-qPCR assay of LmNAC83 and LmERF60 genes were used to further verify the reliability of selected reference genes above. This work is the first to select and evaluate the stability of reference genes for the normalization of gene expression analysis in L. megaphylla and will provide an important foundation for future genetic studies of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongli Liu
- International Union Laboratory of Landscape Architecture of Henan, College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450003, China
| | - Jing Liu
- International Union Laboratory of Landscape Architecture of Henan, College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450003, China
| | - Peng Chen
- International Union Laboratory of Landscape Architecture of Henan, College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450003, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- International Union Laboratory of Landscape Architecture of Henan, College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450003, China
| | - Ke Wang
- Zhengzhou Botanical Garden, Zhengzhou 450042, China
| | - Jiuxing Lu
- International Union Laboratory of Landscape Architecture of Henan, College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450003, China
| | - Yonghua Li
- International Union Laboratory of Landscape Architecture of Henan, College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450003, China
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Zheng H, Zhao H, Zhang X, Liang Z, He Q. Systematic Identification and Validation of Suitable Reference Genes for the Normalization of Gene Expression in Prunella vulgaris under Different Organs and Spike Development Stages. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:1947. [PMID: 36360184 PMCID: PMC9689956 DOI: 10.3390/genes13111947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) is an efficient and sensitive method for determining gene expression levels, but the accuracy of the results substantially depends on the stability of the reference gene (RG). Therefore, choosing an appropriate reference gene is a critical step in normalizing qRT-PCR data. Prunella vulgaris L. is a traditional Chinese medicine herb widely used in China. Its main medicinal part is the fruiting spike which is termed Spica Prunellae. However, thus far, few studies have been conducted on the mechanism of Spica Prunellae development. Meanwhile, no reliable RGs have been reported in P. vulgaris. The expression levels of 14 candidate RGs were analyzed in this study in various organs and at different stages of Spica Prunellae development. Four statistical algorithms (Delta Ct, BestKeeper, NormFinder, and geNorm) were utilized to identify the RGs' stability, and an integrated stability rating was generated via the RefFinder website online. The final ranking results revealed that eIF-2 was the most stable RG, whereas VAB2 was the least suitable as an RG. Furthermore, eIF-2 + Histon3.3 was identified as the best RG combination in different periods and the total samples. Finally, the expressions of the PvTAT and Pv4CL2 genes related to the regulation of rosmarinic acid synthesis in different organs were used to verify the stable and unstable RGs. The stable RGs in P. vulgaris were originally identified and verified in this work. This achievement provides strong support for obtaining a reliable qPCR analysis and lays the foundation for in-depth research on the developmental mechanism of Spica Prunellae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Plant Secondary Metabolism and Regulation of Zhejiang Province, College of Life Science and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Hongguang Zhao
- Tasly Botanical Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shangluo 726000, China
| | - Xuemin Zhang
- Tasly R&D Institute, Tasly Holding Group Co., Ltd., Tianjin 300410, China
| | - Zongsuo Liang
- Shaoxing Academy of Biomedicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Shaoxing 312000, China
| | - Qiuling He
- Key Laboratory of Plant Secondary Metabolism and Regulation of Zhejiang Province, College of Life Science and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
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Yang J, Han F, Yang L, Wang J, Jin F, Luo A, Zhao F. Identification of Reference Genes for RT-qPCR Analysis in Gleditsia microphylla under Abiotic Stress and Hormone Treatment. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13071227. [PMID: 35886010 PMCID: PMC9315665 DOI: 10.3390/genes13071227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Gleditsia microphylla is an important galactomannan gums source plant with characteristics of drought resistance, barren tolerance, and good adaptability. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of the biological process are not yet fully understood. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) is an accurate and convenient method to quantify the gene expression level and transcription abundance of suitable reference genes. This study aimed to screen the best internal reference genes in G. microphylla under abiotic stresses, hormone treatments, and different tissues. Based on the transcriptome data, twelve candidate reference genes were selected, and ultimately, nine of them were further evaluated by the geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder algorithms. These results show that TATA-binding protein 1 (TBP1)and Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A1 (EIF4A1)were the two most stable reference genes, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase A subunit, chloroplastic (GAPA)and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase B subunit, chloroplastic (GAPB)were the two most unstable reference genes across all samples under the given experimental conditions. Meanwhile, the most stable reference genes varied among the different groups and tissues. Therefore, this study suggests that it is better to use a specific reference gene for a particular case rather than using a common reference gene.
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Zhong Y, Gai Y, Gao J, Nie W, Bao Z, Wang W, Xu X, Wu J, He Y. Selection and validation of reference genes for quantitative real-time PCR normalization in Psoralea corylifolia (Babchi) under various abiotic stress. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 274:153722. [PMID: 35605384 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2022.153722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Psoralea corylifolia L. is a popular herb and has long been used in traditional Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine owing to its extensive pharmacological activities, especially in the treatment of various shin diseases. To date, the systematic evaluation and selection of the optimum reference genes for gene expression analysis of P. corylifolia were not reported. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is a method for gene expression quantification. Selecting appropriate reference genes is the prerequisite for accurate normalization of RT-qPCR results. This study assessed the expression stability of 10 candidate reference genes under different abiotic stresses. First, amplification primers for RT-qPCR were designed and received testing and optimization. Then, expression data from each candidate gene were evaluated based on three statistical algorithms, and their results were further integrated into a comprehensive ranking based on the geometric mean. Additionally, one target gene, i.e., 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidase (ACO), was used to validate the effectiveness of the selected reference. Our analysis suggested that thioredoxin-like protein YLS8 (YLS8), TIP41-like family protein (TIP41), and cyclophilin 2 (CYP2) genes provided superior expression normalization under different abiotic stresses. Overall, this work constitutes the first effort to select optimal endogenous controls for RT-qPCR studies of gene expression in P. corylifolia. It also provides a reasonable normalization standard and basis for further analysis of the gene expression of bioactive components in P. corylifolia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhong
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu Health Vocational College, Nanjing, 211800, China.
| | - Yanan Gai
- Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China.
| | - Jiajia Gao
- School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China.
| | - Weifen Nie
- School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 211198, China.
| | - Zhenzhen Bao
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu Health Vocational College, Nanjing, 211800, China.
| | - Weiqi Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu Health Vocational College, Nanjing, 211800, China.
| | - Xiaoqing Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu Health Vocational College, Nanjing, 211800, China.
| | - Jie Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu Health Vocational College, Nanjing, 211800, China.
| | - Yuedong He
- College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China.
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Wu Y, Zhang C, Yang H, Lyu L, Li W, Wu W. Selection and Validation of Candidate Reference Genes for Gene Expression Analysis by RT-qPCR in Rubus. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910533. [PMID: 34638877 PMCID: PMC8508773 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the lack of effective and stable reference genes, studies on functional genes in Rubus, a genus of economically important small berry crops, have been greatly limited. To select the best internal reference genes of different types, we selected four representative cultivars of blackberry and raspberry (red raspberry, yellow raspberry, and black raspberry) as the research material and used RT-qPCR technology combined with three internal stability analysis software programs (geNorm, NormFinder, and BestKeeper) to analyze 12 candidate reference genes for the stability of their expression. The number of most suitable internal reference genes for different cultivars, tissues, and fruit developmental stages of Rubus was calculated by geNorm software to be two. Based on the results obtained with the three software programs, the most stable genes in the different cultivars were RuEEF1A and Ru18S. Finally, to validate the reliability of selected reference genes, the expression pattern of the RuCYP73A gene was analyzed, and the results highlighted the importance of appropriate reference gene selection. RuEEF1A and Ru18S were screened as reference genes for their relatively stable expression, providing a reference for the further study of key functional genes in blackberry and raspberry and an effective tool for the analysis of differential gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqiong Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, The Jiangsu Provincial Platform for Conservation and Utilization of Agricultural Germplasm, Qian Hu Hou Cun No. 1, Nanjing 210014, China; (Y.W.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (L.L.)
| | - Chunhong Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, The Jiangsu Provincial Platform for Conservation and Utilization of Agricultural Germplasm, Qian Hu Hou Cun No. 1, Nanjing 210014, China; (Y.W.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (L.L.)
| | - Haiyan Yang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, The Jiangsu Provincial Platform for Conservation and Utilization of Agricultural Germplasm, Qian Hu Hou Cun No. 1, Nanjing 210014, China; (Y.W.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (L.L.)
| | - Lianfei Lyu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, The Jiangsu Provincial Platform for Conservation and Utilization of Agricultural Germplasm, Qian Hu Hou Cun No. 1, Nanjing 210014, China; (Y.W.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (L.L.)
| | - Weilin Li
- Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, China
- Correspondence: (W.L.); (W.W.); Tel.: +86-25-8542-8531 (W.L.); +86-25-8434-7063 (W.W.)
| | - Wenlong Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for the Research and Utilization of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province and Chinese Academy of Sciences, The Jiangsu Provincial Platform for Conservation and Utilization of Agricultural Germplasm, Qian Hu Hou Cun No. 1, Nanjing 210014, China; (Y.W.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (L.L.)
- Correspondence: (W.L.); (W.W.); Tel.: +86-25-8542-8531 (W.L.); +86-25-8434-7063 (W.W.)
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Lancíková V, Hricová A. Digital Absolute Gene Expression Analysis of Essential Starch-Related Genes in a Radiation Developed Amaranthus cruentus L. Variety in Comparison with Real-Time PCR. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9080966. [PMID: 32751665 PMCID: PMC7464018 DOI: 10.3390/plants9080966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the expression pattern of four major starch genes at different seed developmental stages in the radiation-bred amaranth variety “Pribina” (Amaranthus cruentus L.) and corresponding control genotype “Ficha” (Amaranthus cruentus L.). Two platforms were used and compared for the gene expression analysis of GBSSI, SSSI, SBE, and DBE amaranth genes, including a standard quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) technique and relatively novel droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) assay. In our conditions, both methods showed great accuracy and revealed higher expression of the investigated genes in the mutant variety than in the control genotype. Here we report for the first time, a ddPCR gene expression assay for the cultivated grain amaranth, as the most important group of the species in the genus Amaranthus.
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