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Martín MÁ, Vara C, García-Gutiérrez C. Psychological Implicit Motives Construct as an Emergent Fractal Attractor from Intermittent Neurophysiological Responses: Simulation and Entropy-like Characterization. ENTROPY (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 25:e25050711. [PMID: 37238467 DOI: 10.3390/e25050711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Implicit Motives are non-conscious needs that drive human behavior towards the achievement of incentives that are affectively incited. Repeated affective experiences providing satisfying rewards have been held responsible for the building of Implicit Motives. Responses to rewarding experiences have a biological basis via close connections with neurophysiological systems controlling neurohormone release. We propose an iteration random function system acting in a metric space to model experience-reward interactions. This model is based on key facts of Implicit Motive theory reported in a broad number of studies. The model shows how (random) responses produced by intermittent random experiences create a well-defined probability distribution on an attractor, thus providing an insight into the underlying mechanism leading to the emergence of Implicit Motives as psychological structures. Implicit Motives' robustness and resilience properties appear theoretically explained by the model. The model also provides uncertainty entropy-like parameters to characterize Implicit Motives which hopefully might be useful, beyond the mere theoretical frame, when used in combination with neurophysiological methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Ángel Martín
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Celia Vara
- Department of English, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
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Casto KV, Prasad S, Josephs RA, Zilioli S, Welker K, Maslov A, Jones AC, Mehta PH. No Compelling Evidence that Self-Reported Personality Traits Explain Basal Testosterone and Cortisol’s Associations with Status-Relevant Behavior. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-023-00210-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Objective
A goal of behavioral neuroendocrinology is to understand how basal hormone levels relate to behavior. Studies of human participants sometimes measure self-reported personality traits, in addition to or instead of direct behavioral observation. Although personality traits often predict their respective behaviors, whether personality explains hormone-behavior relationships remains unclear.
Methods
We obtained data from eight previous studies (total N = 985) that examined baseline testosterone and cortisol as predictors of status-relevant behavior (competitiveness, dominance, risk-taking, aggression, affiliation, and social status). We tested whether the previously reported hormone-behavior relationships are mediated by self-reported personality traits (e.g., trait dominance, prestige, extraversion). As a secondary research question, we also tested whether trait dominance moderated the testosterone-behavior relationships.
Results
As expected, self-reported personality traits often predicted status-relevant behaviors, but there was little evidence that traits also correlated with basal testosterone or the testosterone × cortisol interaction. Across all eight studies, personality traits did not significantly mediate hormone-behavior relationships. Indeed, the effect sizes of the hormone-behavior relationships were robust to the inclusion of personality traits as covariates. Further, we did not find strong or consistent evidence that trait dominance moderates the testosterone-behavior association.
Conclusion
Results suggest that basal testosterone and cortisol predict status-related behavior independent of self-reported personality. We discuss how these results may have broader implications for the physiological mechanisms by which testosterone and cortisol influence behavior, a process that could be unconscious and automatic. We also discuss alternative explanations, limitations, and future directions.
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Haufler A, Ditzen B, Schüler J. Social Support as a Stress Buffer or Stress Amplifier and the Moderating Role of Implicit Motives: Protocol for a Randomized Study (Preprint). JMIR Res Protoc 2022; 11:e39509. [PMID: 35943794 PMCID: PMC9399871 DOI: 10.2196/39509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Previous research shows that providing social support in socioevaluative stress situations reduces participants’ stress responses. This stress-buffer effect, however, does not hold for everybody, and some studies even found a stress-amplifying effect of social support. Motive disposition research suggests that social motives (affiliation and power) lead to differential and sometimes even opposing affective and physiological responses to interpersonal interaction processes. We here integrate both lines of research and hypothesize that participants with strong affiliation motives benefit, while participants with strong power motives do not benefit from social support in terms of psychobiological responses to a given stressor. Further, participants with strong affiliation and power motives are expected to respond to social support with the arousal of motive-specific affects and reproductive hormone responses (affiliation: progesterone; power: estradiol and testosterone). In addition, we test sex differences in the response to social support and in the strengths of social motives. Objective The main objective of this study is to test whether social motives and participants’ sex moderate the effects of social support in stressful situations. Methods We aim to collect data from 308 participants recruited at our local university. Participants’ social motives are assessed using a standardized measure in motive research (Picture Story Exercise). Then, the Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G) is used to experimentally induce psychosocial stress. One group of participants receives social support from an associate of the experimenter, while the control group does not receive social support. Stress responses will be assessed by a modified version of the state anxiety scale of the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory and by physiological indicators of stress (cortisol and α-amylase from saliva samples) at 7 measurement points. Reproductive hormones will be analyzed in 4 of these 7 saliva samples. Heart rate and heart rate variability will be assessed continuously. We will additionally measure participants’ performance in an interview (part of the TSST-G) using a self-developed categorization system. Results The Ethics Committee of the University of Constance approved the application to conduct the study on December 18, 2018. Furthermore, the study was retrospectively registered in the German Clinical Trials Register (DKRS; ID: DRKS00028503) on March 09, 2022. The start of the experiment was planned for the beginning of 2019, but was postponed to June 2021 due to COVID-19. Publication of the first results is planned for spring 2023. Conclusions Our theory-driven integration of social motives in social support research and the precise analysis of sex differences might disentangle inconsistent findings in TSST research. The more faceted view on individual differences has direct implications for applied contexts as it provides a framework for tailored conceptualizations of social support programs. Trial Registration German Clinical Trials Register DRKS00028503; https://tinyurl.com/5a87x4da International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) PRR1-10.2196/39509
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisa Haufler
- Department of Sport Science, Unversity of Konstanz, Constance, Germany
| | - Beate Ditzen
- Institute for Medical Psychology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julia Schüler
- Department of Sport Science, Unversity of Konstanz, Constance, Germany
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Kehr HM, Voigt J, Rawolle M. Implicit motives as the missing link between visionary leadership, approach and avoidance motivation, and vision pursuit. ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/20413866211061364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
An unresolved question in visionary leadership research is, why must visions be high in imagery to cause affective reactions and be motivationally effective? Research in motivation psychology has shown that pictorial cues arouse implicit motives. Thus, pictorial cues from vision-induced imagery should arouse a follower’s implicit motives just like a real image. Hence, our fundamental proposition is that follower implicit motives and follower approach motivation serially mediate the relationship between leader vision and followers’ vision pursuit. We also examine the case of negative leader visions, with the central propositions that a negative leader vision arouses a follower’s implicit fear motives and that the follower’s implicit fear motives and follower avoidance motivation serially mediate the relationship between negative leader vision and the follower’s fear-related behaviors. Lastly, we assert that multiple implicit follower motives aroused by a multithematic leader vision exert additive as well as interaction effects on the follower’s vision pursuit. Plain Language Summary An unresolved question in leader vision research concerns why visions need to be high in imagery in order to elicit affective reactions in followers and be motivationally effective? Research in motivation psychology has shown that pictorial cues can arouse a person's implicit motives. It would thus be reasonable to expect that pictorial cues from leader vision-induced imagery arouse a follower's implicit motives just like a real image. Based on this reasoning, our key proposition is that follower implicit motives and follower approach motivation serially mediate the relationship between leader vision and followers' vision pursuit. We also integrate the special case of negative leader visions into our theorizing, with the central propositions that a negative leader vision arouses a follower's implicit fear motives, and that the follower's implicit fear motives and follower avoidance motivation serially mediate the relationship between negative leader vision and the follower's fear-related behaviors. Lastly, based on the distinction between mono- and multithematic visions, the latter of which with the potential to arouse more than one implicit motive simultaneously, we assert that multiple implicit follower motives aroused by a multithematic leader vision exert additive as well as interaction effects on the follower's vision pursuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo M. Kehr
- Department of Psychology, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
| | - Julian Voigt
- Department of Psychology, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
| | - Maika Rawolle
- Department of Psychology, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany
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Xue R, Qian G, Qian Z, Li L. Entrepreneurs’ Implicit and Explicit Achievement Motives and Their Early International Commitment. MANAGEMENT INTERNATIONAL REVIEW 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11575-020-00436-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Baum IR, Baumann N. Arousing autonomy: A valid assessment of the implicit autonomy motive. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.110362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Vongas JG, Al Hajj R, Fiset J. Leader emergence and affective empathy: A dynamic test of the dual-hormone hypothesis. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0244548. [PMID: 33378391 PMCID: PMC7773240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Personal distress is a building block of empathy, yet has received scant attention in studies of individual differences in leadership. We investigate whether the effect of leader emergence on men's distress is influenced by their personalized power motive (p Power) and changes in their testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) levels. In an experiment involving 96 males, p Power modulated the direction and intensity of T change in emergent leaders, with high p-Power leaders showing a more positive T change compared to their low p-Power counterparts. We also conducted a dynamic test of the dual-hormone hypothesis in which participants' changes in T and C interacted to produce differences in personal distress. Contrary to expectations, positive changes in T were associated with increased distress at negative changes in C. Given that high T and low C are associated with leadership, we explain these findings and question the assumption that personal distress represents a shortcoming in leaders.
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Affiliation(s)
- John G. Vongas
- Department of Management, Ithaca College School of Business, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Raghid Al Hajj
- Department of Management, John Molson School of Business, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - John Fiset
- Department of Management, Sobey School of Business, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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Brueckner J, Bosak J, Lang JW. Connect vs conquer? CEO gender and implicit motives. JOURNAL OF MANAGERIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1108/jmp-01-2019-0061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PurposeThis study examined gender differences in CEOs' expression of implicit achievement, power and affiliation motivation. Building on the role congruity account of sex differences and similarities in motivation and existing literature on implicit motives, the study tested whether female CEOs would express higher affiliation motivation than male CEOs and similar levels of achievement motivation. In addition, gender differences in power motivation were explored.Design/methodology/approachThe study used propensity score matching to generate a comparable sample of male and female CEOs from publicly traded companies. Subsequently, the authors content-coded CEO letters from annual reports using Winter's (1994) manual for scoring motive imagery in running text.FindingsOverall, CEOs expressed more achievement and power motivation than affiliation motivation. Comparisons between male and female CEOs showed that female CEOs expressed lower power and higher affiliation motivation than male CEOs.Research limitations/implicationsBy integrating implicit motive theory with social role theory and the role congruity account of motivation, this study provides a theoretical framework and novel demonstration that understanding social roles and gender roles can lend insights into motive expression by CEOs.Originality/valueThe study uses established theory and a validated scoring method in a novel way by analyzing implicit motives from CEO letters, a critical communication channel in the CEO–shareholder relationship. In doing so, this study adopts a sociocultural perspective. Informed by the role congruity account of motivation, the study demonstrates the importance of social roles and gender roles for motivational displays.
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Spengler B, Hofer J, Busch H, Dzionsko I, Emslander V. Implicit motives and children's salivary cortisol reactivity to an adapted version of the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C). PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.110010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Schütz LM, Schultheiss OC. Implicit Motives, Laterality, Sports Participation and Competition in Gymnasts. Front Psychol 2020; 11:900. [PMID: 32528356 PMCID: PMC7265554 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The implicit motivational needs for power, achievement, and affiliation are relevant for sports performance. Due to their hypothesized association with functions of the right hemisphere (McClelland, 1986), they may influence lateralized perceptual and motor processes. And due to their interactions with motive-specific incentives, they may influence performance conditional on the presence of suitable incentives. This preregistered study, conducted mostly online, examines motivational needs using a standard picture-story exercise (PSE) and their associations with indicators of perceptual and motor laterality and sports performance in gymnasts (N = 67). Further it explores how implicit motives interact with suitable motivational incentives in the prediction of sports performance. Results partly confirm a link between indicators of cerebral rightward laterality and implicit motives: the implicit affiliation and achievement motives are positively associated with an indicator of emotional-perceptional laterality (chimeric-faces task), but not with an indicator of motor laterality (turning bias). Moreover, the implicit achievement motive was positively correlated with training hours. The implicit affiliation motive was negatively associated with the highest attained competition level. The presence of achievement incentives (perceived control, failure) and affiliation incentives (training together or alone) did not interact with corresponding motives to predict sports performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa-Marie Schütz
- Institute of Sports and Sports Sciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Oliver C. Schultheiss
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich–Alexander University Erlangen–Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Köllner MG, Bleck K. Exploratory Evidence of Sex-Dimorphic Associations of the Ulna-to-Fibula Ratio, a Potential Marker of Pubertal Sex Steroid Exposure, with the Implicit Need for Power. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-020-00130-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
We propose a novel marker of pubertal organizing hormone effects on the brain, long bone length, and assess its relationships to implicit motives, especially the implicit need for power (nPower).
Methods
In a partly exploratory approach, we tested 126 participants (after exclusions; 53 men, 73 women), in a cross-sectional design using the Picture-Story Exercise (nPower, activity inhibition), standard anthropometric measurements (BMI, height), and calipers to assess bone length of the ulna and fibula.
Results
Results indicated that a sex-dimorphic (d = 0.55) Ulna-to-Fibula Ratio (UFR), which is independent of body height, best captures the variance in our data. While we did not find bivariate relationships between long bone length and nPower, a sex-dimorphic interaction of nPower and activity inhibition on UFR-asymmetry (UFRr-l; right versus left UFR) emerged. High UFRr-l scores were related to the inhibited power motive (high nPower, high activity inhibition) in men, while for women the pattern was (non-significantly) reversed. In addition, UFR was predicted by a sex-dimorphic effect of nPower, with low UFR scores being associated with a higher nPower in men and a tendency for high UFR scores being related to lower nPower in women.
Conclusions
We discuss our results regarding UFR’s potential as a sex-dimorphic marker of the organizing effects of pubertal steroid hormones on the motivational brain beyond hand and face parameters routinely used in current research. Finally, we examine how our findings fit recent results obtained for the relationship between 2D:4D digit ratio or facial width-to-height ratio and nPower.
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Metzler H, Grèzes J. Repeatedly adopting power postures does not affect hormonal correlates of dominance and affiliative behavior. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6726. [PMID: 31245173 PMCID: PMC6585898 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adopting expansive vs. constrictive postures related to high vs. low levels of social power has been suggested to induce changes in testosterone and cortisol levels, and thereby to mimic hormonal correlates of dominance behavior. However, these findings have been challenged by several non-replications recently. Despite this growing body of evidence that does not support posture effects on hormone levels, the question remains as to whether repeatedly holding postures over time and/or assessing hormonal responses at different time points would yield different outcomes. The current study assesses these methodological characteristics as possible reasons for previous null-findings. Additionally, it investigates for the first time whether expansive and constrictive postures impact progesterone levels, a suggested correlate of affiliative motives and behavior. By testing the effects of repeated but short posture manipulations in between the blocks of a social task while using a cover story, it further fulfills the conditions previously raised as potentially necessary for the effects to occur. Methods A total of 82 male participants repeatedly adopted an expansive or constrictive posture for 2 min in between blocks of a task that consisted in categorizing faces based on first impressions. Saliva samples were taken at two different time points in a time window in which hormonal responses to stress, competition and other manipulations are known to be strongest. Results Neither testosterone and cortisol levels linked to dominance behaviors, nor progesterone levels related to affiliative tendencies, responded differently to adopting expansive as opposed to constrictive postures. The present results suggest that even repeated power posing in a context where social stimuli are task-relevant does not elicit changes in hormone levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Metzler
- Laboratoire de neurosciences cognitives et computationnelles, INSERM U960, Département d'études cognitives, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Paris, PSL University, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie (Paris VI), Paris, France
| | - Julie Grèzes
- Laboratoire de neurosciences cognitives et computationnelles, INSERM U960, Département d'études cognitives, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Paris, PSL University, Paris, France
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Campbell J, Fiacco S, Ditzen B, Meuwly N, Ehlert U. Endocrine Correlates of Social Comparison in Couple Relationships. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-019-00112-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Schüler J, Baumann N, Chasiotis A, Bender M, Baum I. Implicit motives and basic psychological needs. J Pers 2018; 87:37-55. [DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Schüler
- Department of Sports Science, Sport Psychology; University of Konstanz; Konstanz Germany
| | - Nicola Baumann
- Department I - Psychology; University of Trier; Trier Germany
| | | | - Michael Bender
- Department of Social Psychology; Tilburg University; Tilburg Netherlands
- School of Psychology; Gratia Christian College; Shek Kip Mei Hong Kong
| | - Ingrid Baum
- Department I - Psychology; University of Trier; Trier Germany
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Denzinger F, Brandstätter V. Stability of and Changes in Implicit Motives. A Narrative Review of Empirical Studies. Front Psychol 2018; 9:777. [PMID: 29887818 PMCID: PMC5982542 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Although growing research indicates that certain personality traits change over the lifespan, implicit motives are often deemed to be rather stable personality characteristics. Researchers have been interested in implicit motives for several decades, but our understanding of how these dispositions change still lacks clarity. This article gives an overview and a discussion of the current evidence for the stability of and the changes in implicit motives. After elaborating on the theoretical background of the motive construct and its measurement, we present an overview of studies that have investigated the trainability of implicit motives and their dispositional stability and changes using cross-sectional and longitudinal methods. Although the results are inconclusive concerning the direction of change, the reviewed studies suggest that implicit motives adapt to life circumstances much like other personality traits. This review sets out to contribute to a better understanding of the functioning of implicit motives and to present a roadmap for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Veronika Brandstätter
- Department of Psychology - Psychology of Motivation, Volition, and Emotion, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Doi H, Basadonne I, Venuti P, Shinohara K. Negative correlation between salivary testosterone concentration and preference for sophisticated music in males. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Inhibited Power Motivation is Associated with the Facial Width-to-Height Ratio in Females. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-017-0075-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Oxford JK, Tiedtke JM, Ossmann A, Özbe D, Schultheiss OC. Endocrine and aggressive responses to competition are moderated by contest outcome, gender, individual versus team competition, and implicit motives. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181610. [PMID: 28750061 PMCID: PMC5531467 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This study examined hormonal responses to competition in relation to gender, social context, and implicit motives. Participants (N = 326) were randomly assigned to win or lose in a 10-round, virtual face-to-face competition, in same-sex individual- and team-competition contexts. Saliva samples, taken before and twice after the competition, were assayed for testosterone (T), estradiol (E), progesterone (P), and cortisol (C). Implicit needs for power (nPower) and affiliation (nAffiliation) were assessed with a picture-story exercise before the competition. Aggression was measured via the volume at which participants set noise blasts for their opponents. Men competing individually and women competing as teams showed similar T increases after winning. C was differentially associated with outcome in the team matches, with higher post-match cortisol for winning women, and an opposite effect for male teams. Analyses including implicit motives indicated that situational variables interacted with motivational needs in shaping hormonal responses to competition: in naturally cycling women, nPower predicted T increases after winning and T and E decreases after losing. In men, nPower predicted T increases after losing and decreases after winning. In male teams, nPower predicted C increases after losing, but not after winning, whereas in individual competitions, nPower was a general negative predictor of C changes in women. nAffiliation predicted P increases for women competing as teams, and P decreases for women competing individually. Aggression was higher in men, losers, and teams than in women, winners, and individuals. High aggression was associated with high baseline C in women competing individually and with low baseline C and C decreases in women competing as teams and in men generally. Our findings suggest that while situational and gender factors play a role in hormonal responses to competition, they also depend on their interplay with motivational factors. They also suggest that while aggression is strongly affected by situational factors in the context of a competition, it has no direct association with motivational and hormonal correlates of dominance (nPower, T, E) and instead is associated with (mostly) low levels of C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon K Oxford
- Behavioral & Social Sciences, Southern Arkansas University, Magnolia, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Johanna M Tiedtke
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anna Ossmann
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Dominik Özbe
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen, Germany
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van der Meij L, Schaveling J, van Vugt M. Basal testosterone, leadership and dominance: A field study and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2016; 72:72-9. [PMID: 27372205 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This article examines the role of basal testosterone as a potential biological marker of leadership and hierarchy in the workplace. First, we report the result of a study with a sample of male employees from different corporate organizations in the Netherlands (n=125). Results showed that employees with higher basal testosterone levels reported a more authoritarian leadership style, but this relationship was absent among those who currently held a real management position (i.e., they had at least one subordinate). Furthermore, basal testosterone levels were not different between managers and non-managers, and testosterone was not associated with various indicators of status and hierarchy such as number of subordinates, income, and position in the organizational hierarchy. In our meta-analysis (second study), we showed that basal testosterone levels were not associated with leadership in men nor in women (9 studies, n=1103). Taken together, our findings show that basal testosterone is not associated with having a leadership position in the corporate world or related to leadership styles in leaders. We suggest that basal testosterone could play a role in acquiring leadership positions through dominant and authoritarian behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leander van der Meij
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Jaap Schaveling
- Centre for Leadership & Management Development, Nyenrode Business Universiteit, Breukelen, The Netherlands.
| | - Mark van Vugt
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Reading the Face of a Leader: Women with Low Facial Masculinity Are Perceived as Competitive. ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT DISCOVERIES 2016. [DOI: 10.5465/amd.2014.0070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Schultheiss OC, Wiemers US, Wolf OT. Exploring Effects of Hydrocortisone on Implicit Motivation and Activity Inhibition: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Study. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-016-0043-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Schultheiss OC, Zimni M. Associations Between Implicit Motives and Salivary Steroids, 2D:4D Digit Ratio, Mental Rotation Performance, and Verbal Fluency. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-014-0012-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Vongas JG, Al Hajj R. Competing Sexes, Power, and Testosterone: How Winning and Losing Affect People's Empathic Responses and What this Means for Organisations. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY-AN INTERNATIONAL REVIEW-PSYCHOLOGIE APPLIQUEE-REVUE INTERNATIONALE 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/apps.12030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John G. Vongas
- John Molson School of Business; Concordia University; Canada
| | - Raghid Al Hajj
- John Molson School of Business; Concordia University; Canada
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Schultheiss OC, Schultheiss M. Implicit Motive Profile Analysis: An If-Then Contingency Approach to the Picture-Story Exercise. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Schultheiss OC, Wiemers US, Wolf OT. Implicit need for achievement predicts attenuated cortisol responses to difficult tasks. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2013; 48:84-92. [PMID: 34531619 DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The present research tested the hypothesis that the implicit need for achievement (n Achievement) predicts attenuated cortisol (C) responses to difficult tasks, because it represents a propensity to view difficulty as a cue to mastery reward. In two studies, n Achievement was assessed through content-coding of imaginative stories and salivary C was assessed both at baseline and post-task. In Study 1 (N = 108 US students), n Achievement predicted an attenuated C response to a one-on-one competition in the laboratory, regardless of whether participants won or lost. In Study 2 (N = 62 German students), n Achievement predicted an attenuated C response to the Trier Social Stress Test (Kirschbaum, Pirke, & Hellhammer, 1993), but not to a non-stressful control task. In Study 2 only, the attenuating effect of n Achievement was moderated by gender, with only men showing the effect. Across both studies, the average effect size of the association between n Achievement and C responses to difficult tasks was r = -.28. These findings point to a role of n Achievement in emotion regulation.
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Geniole SN, Busseri MA, McCormick CM. Testosterone dynamics and psychopathic personality traits independently predict antagonistic behavior towards the perceived loser of a competitive interaction. Horm Behav 2013; 64:790-8. [PMID: 24120551 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Few studies have investigated the influence of changes in testosterone on subsequent competitive, antagonistic behavior in humans. Further, little is known about the extent to which such effects are moderated by personality traits. Here, we collected salivary measures of testosterone before and after a rigged competition. After the competition, participants were given the opportunity to act antagonistically against the competitor (allocate a low honorarium). We hypothesized that changes in testosterone throughout the competition would predict antagonistic behavior such that greater increases would be associated with the allocation of lower honorariums. Further, we investigated the extent to which personality traits related to psychopathy (fearless dominance, FD; self-centered impulsivity, SCI; and coldheartedness) moderated this relationship. In men (n=104), greater increases in testosterone and greater FD were associated with more antagonistic behavior, but testosterone concentrations did not interact with personality measures. In women (n=97), greater FD and SCI predicted greater antagonistic behavior, but there were no significant endocrine predictors or interactions with personality measures. In a secondary set of analyses, we found no support for the dual-hormone hypothesis that the relationship between baseline testosterone concentrations and behavior is moderated by cortisol concentrations. Thus, results are consistent with previous findings that in men, situation-specific testosterone reactivity rather than baseline endocrine function is a better predictor of future antagonistic behavior. The results are discussed with respect to the Challenge Hypothesis and the Biosocial Model of Status, and the possible mechanisms underlying the independent relations of testosterone and personality factors with antagonistic behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn N Geniole
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Ave., St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada
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