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Harrison OL, Bai J, Larson M, Pograninchniy RM, Domingues F, Holcombe N, Lopez O, Jones CK. Evaluation of formaldehyde when complete feed and soybean meal were inoculated with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, and Seneca Valley virus 1. Transl Anim Sci 2024; 8:txae121. [PMID: 39219715 PMCID: PMC11362987 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txae121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2024] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Formaldehyde has been found to decrease virus concentrations in feed and ingredient matrices. Continued research is needed to identify the appropriate inclusion levels and application time for different viruses in these matrices. The objective was to evaluate different inclusion levels of formaldehyde when applied either pre- or postinoculation of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), type 2 porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), and Seneca Valley virus 1 (SVV1) to complete feed or soybean meal. The experiment was designed in a 2 × 2 factorial with a formaldehyde-based product (Termin-8, Anitox Corporation, Lawrenceville, GA) applied either before virus inoculation (preinoculation) or after inoculation (postinoculation) at either a 2 or 3 kg/MT. On day 0, samples of the respective matrices were weighed in 50 g aliquots and added to 500 mL bottles. Formaldehyde was applied to the preinoculation samples at the respective inclusion levels and 50 µL of each virus were added to the postinoculation samples. All bottles were shaken and allowed to sit at room temperature for 24 h. On day 1, virus was added to the preinoculation samples and formaldehyde was added to the postinoculation bottles. Half of the samples were immediately processed (0 h) and the other half were incubated at room temperature for an additional 24 h. Samples were processed and aliquots were analyzed via triplex PCR. An application time × inclusion level interaction was observed for PEDV at 0 h and SVV1 and PEDV at 24 h in complete feed, where less viral RNA (P < 0.05) was detected in the postinoculation samples at either inclusion level as compared to the positive controls. In soybean meal, the same interaction was observed in PEDV and PRRSV at 0 h and SVV1 and PEDV at 24 h with less detectable RNA observed (P < 0.05) in the postinoculation samples regardless of inclusion level than the preinoculation counterparts and the controls. Overall, an application time effect was noticed in each matrix where less RNA was detected in the postinoculation samples at 0 h (P < 0.05) compared to the preinoculation samples and the control, and at 24 h, both the pre- and postinoculation samples had less detectable RNA (P < 0.05) than the control. Overall, formaldehyde can reduce detectable RNA immediately in contaminated complete feed and soybean meal, with greater decreases observed as mitigant contact time increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia L Harrison
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66056, USA
| | - Jianfa Bai
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66056, USA
| | - Martee Larson
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66056, USA
| | - Roman M Pograninchniy
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66056, USA
| | | | | | - Othmar Lopez
- Anitox Corporation, Lawrenceville, GA 30043, USA
| | - Cassandra K Jones
- Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66056, USA
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2
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Jackman JA, Hakobyan A, Grigoryan R, Izmailyan R, Elrod CC, Zakaryan H. Antiviral screening of natural, anti-inflammatory compound library against African swine fever virus. Virol J 2024; 21:95. [PMID: 38664855 PMCID: PMC11046949 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-024-02374-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a major threat to pig production and the lack of effective vaccines underscores the need to develop robust antiviral countermeasures. Pathologically, a significant elevation in pro-inflammatory cytokine production is associated with ASFV infection in pigs and there is high interest in identifying dual-acting natural compounds that exhibit antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities. METHODS Using the laboratory-adapted ASFV BA71V strain, we screened a library of 297 natural, anti-inflammatory compounds to identify promising candidates that protected Vero cells against virus-induced cytopathic effect (CPE). Virus yield reduction, virucidal, and cell cytotoxicity experiments were performed on positive hits and two lead compounds were further characterized in dose-dependent assays along with time-of-addition, time-of-removal, virus entry, and viral protein synthesis assays. The antiviral effects of the two lead compounds on mitigating virulent ASFV infection in porcine macrophages (PAMs) were also tested using similar methods, and the ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokine production during virulent ASFV infection was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS The screen identified five compounds that inhibited ASFV-induced CPE by greater than 50% and virus yield reduction experiments showed that two of these compounds, tetrandrine and berbamine, exhibited particularly high levels of anti-ASFV activity. Mechanistic analysis confirmed that both compounds potently inhibited early stages of ASFV infection and that the compounds also inhibited infection of PAMs by the virulent ASFV Arm/07 isolate. Importantly, during ASFV infection in PAM cells, both compounds markedly reduced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in disease pathogenesis while tetrandrine had a greater and more sustained anti-inflammatory effect than berbamine. CONCLUSIONS Together, these findings support that dual-acting natural compounds with antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties hold promise as preventative and therapeutic agents to combat ASFV infection by simultaneously inhibiting viral replication and reducing virus-induced cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering and Translational Nanobioscience Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
| | - Astghik Hakobyan
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Discovery, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Rafayela Grigoryan
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Discovery, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Roza Izmailyan
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Discovery, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Charles C Elrod
- Natural Biologics Inc, Newfield, NY, 14867, USA.
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Hovakim Zakaryan
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Discovery, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia.
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3
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Jackman JA, Arabyan E, Zakaryan H, Elrod CC. Glycerol Monolaurate Inhibits Wild-Type African Swine Fever Virus Infection in Porcine Macrophages. Pathogens 2023; 12:1193. [PMID: 37887709 PMCID: PMC10610281 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12101193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Naturally abundant antimicrobial lipids, such as fatty acids and monoglycerides, that disrupt membrane-enveloped viruses are promising mitigants to inhibit African swine fever virus (ASFV). Among mitigant candidates in this class, glycerol monolaurate (GML) has demonstrated particularly high antiviral activity against laboratory-adapted ASFV strains. However, there is an outstanding need to further determine the effects of GML on wild-type ASFV strains, which can have different virulence levels and sensitivities to membrane-disrupting compounds as compared to laboratory-adapted strains. Herein, we investigated the antiviral effects of GML on a highly virulent strain of a wild-type ASFV isolate (Armenia/07) in an in vitro porcine macrophage model. GML treatment caused a concentration-dependent reduction in viral infectivity, and there was a sharp transition between inactive and active GML concentrations. Low GML concentrations had negligible effect on viral infectivity, whereas sufficiently high GML concentrations caused a >99% decrease in viral infectivity. The concentration onset of antiviral activity matched the critical micelle concentration (CMC) value of GML, reinforcing that GML micelles play a critical role in enabling anti-ASFV activity. These findings validate that GML can potently inhibit wild-type ASFV infection of porcine macrophages and support a biophysical explanation to guide antimicrobial lipid performance optimization for pathogen mitigation applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering and Translational Nanobioscience Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Erik Arabyan
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Discovery, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan 0014, Armenia
| | - Hovakim Zakaryan
- Laboratory of Antiviral Drug Discovery, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan 0014, Armenia
| | - Charles C Elrod
- Natural Biologics Inc., Newfield, NY 14867, USA
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Shurson GC, Urriola PE, Schroeder DC. Biosecurity and Mitigation Strategies to Control Swine Viruses in Feed Ingredients and Complete Feeds. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2375. [PMID: 37508151 PMCID: PMC10376163 DOI: 10.3390/ani13142375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
No system nor standardized analytical procedures at commercial laboratories exist to facilitate and accurately measure potential viable virus contamination in feed ingredients and complete feeds globally. As a result, there is high uncertainty of the extent of swine virus contamination in global feed supply chains. Many knowledge gaps need to be addressed to improve our ability to prevent virus contamination and transmission in swine feed. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge involving: (1) the need for biosecurity protocols to identify production, processing, storage, and transportation conditions that may cause virus contamination of feed ingredients and complete feed; (2) challenges of measuring virus inactivation; (3) virus survival in feed ingredients during transportation and storage; (4) minimum infectious doses; (5) differences between using a food safety objective versus a performance objective as potential approaches for risk assessment in swine feed; (6) swine virus inactivation from thermal and irradiation processes, and chemical mitigants in feed ingredients and complete feed; (7) efficacy of virus decontamination strategies in feed mills; (8) benefits of functional ingredients, nutrients, and commercial feed additives in pig diets during a viral health challenge; and (9) considerations for improved risk assessment models of virus contamination in feed supply chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald C Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Pedro E Urriola
- Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Declan C Schroeder
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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5
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Spronk G, Havas K, Patterson G, Dee S. Will swine veterinarians lead by meeting the next-generation needs of our industry? J Am Vet Med Assoc 2022; 261:424-429. [PMID: 36563066 DOI: 10.2460/javma.22.10.0480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The US swine industry is currently challenged by the potential of transboundary animal disease (eg, African swine fever) entry to the national herd and the relentless pressures of domestic diseases (eg, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome). The task of the swine veterinarian is to biosecure both the national herd and their customers' local farms to mitigate these risks. This Viewpoint raises 4 questions that swine veterinarians, including practicing (private and corporate), industry, research, academic, and regulatory (state and federal) veterinarians who spend a portion of their time controlling, treating, preventing, or eradicating diseases of swine, must answer to meet the needs of their farms to compete globally and survive. In addition, it appears that there is sufficient science-based information to move forward in a collaborative manner and that the goals of prevention of African swine fever and elimination of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus are technically possible. Therefore, as previous generations of swine veterinarians led the US industry in the elimination of foot-and-mouth disease virus, classical swine fever virus, and pseudorabies virus from the national herd, the central challenge is whether the next generation of veterinarians will provide the necessary leadership to deal with the current industry and its next-generation challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karyn Havas
- 1Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN
| | | | - Scott Dee
- 1Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN
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Palowski A, Balestreri C, Urriola PE, van de Ligt JLG, Sampedro F, Dee S, Shah A, Yancy HF, Shurson GC, Schroeder DC. Survival of a surrogate African swine fever virus-like algal virus in feed matrices using a 23-day commercial United States truck transport model. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1059118. [PMID: 36569067 PMCID: PMC9782974 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1059118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a member of the nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDVs) and is stable in a variety of environments, including animal feed ingredients as shown in previous laboratory experiments and simulations. Emiliania huxleyi virus (EhV) is another member of the NCLDVs, which has a restricted host range limited to a species of marine algae called Emiliania huxleyi. This algal NCLDV has many similar morphological and physical characteristics to ASFV thereby making it a safe surrogate, with results that are applicable to ASFV and suitable for use in real-world experiments. Here we inoculated conventional soybean meal (SBMC), organic soybean meal (SBMO), and swine complete feed (CF) matrices with EhV strain 86 (EhV-86) at a concentration of 6.6 × 107 virus g-1, and then transported these samples in the trailer of a commercial transport vehicle for 23 days across 10,183 km covering 29 states in various regions of the United States. Upon return, samples were evaluated for virus presence and viability using a previously validated viability qPCR (V-qPCR) method. Results showed that EhV-86 was detected in all matrices and no degradation in EhV-86 viability was observed after the 23-day transportation event. Additionally, sampling sensitivity (we recorded unexpected increases, as high as 49% in one matrix, when virus was recovered at the end of the sampling period) rather than virus degradation best explains the variation of virus quantity observed after the 23-day transport simulation. These results demonstrate for the first time that ASFV-like NCLDVs can retain viability in swine feed matrices during long-term transport across the continental United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Palowski
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Cecilia Balestreri
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Pedro E. Urriola
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Jennifer L. G. van de Ligt
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Fernando Sampedro
- Environmental Health Sciences Division, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Scott Dee
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, MN, United States
| | | | - Haile F. Yancy
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Veterinary Medicine, Office of Research, Laurel, MD, United States
| | - Gerald C. Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Declan C. Schroeder
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
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7
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Niederwerder MC, Khanal P, Foland T, Constance LA, Stoian AMM, Deavours A, Haase K, Cino-Ozuna AG. Stability of African swine fever virus in feed during environmental storage. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:3216-3224. [PMID: 35881701 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) causes high case fatality in pigs and a trade-limiting disease resulting in significant economic losses to pork production. ASFV is resistant to environmental degradation and maintains infectivity in feed ingredients exposed to transoceanic shipment conditions. As ASFV is transmissible through consumption of contaminated feed, the objective of this study was to evaluate the stability of ASFV Georgia 2007 in three feed matrices (complete feed, soybean meal, ground corncobs) exposed to three environmental storage temperatures (40°F, 68°F, 95°F) for up to 365 days. ASFV DNA was highly stable and detectable by qPCR in almost all feed matrices through the conclusion of each study. Infectious ASFV was most stable in soybean meal, maintaining infectivity for at least 112 days at 40°F, at least 21 days at 68°F and at least 7 days at 95°F. These data help define risk of ASFV introduction and transmission through feed ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan C Niederwerder
- Swine Health Information Center, Ames, Iowa, USA.,Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Pratiksha Khanal
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Travis Foland
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Laura A Constance
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Ana M M Stoian
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Aubrey Deavours
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Katie Haase
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Ada G Cino-Ozuna
- Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
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8
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Thermal inactivation of African swine fever virus in feed ingredients. Sci Rep 2022; 12:15998. [PMID: 36163486 PMCID: PMC9512900 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20290-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) causes a fatal infectious disease affecting domestic pigs and wild boars. ASFV is highly stable and easily transmitted by consumption of contaminated swine feed and pork products. Heat treatment of feed ingredients is a means to minimize the risk of contamination through swine feed consumption. The objectives of this study were to determine the thermal inactivation of ASFV in non-animal and animal origin feed ingredients. The rate of thermal inactivation is represented by decimal reduction time (DT) or time required to reduce ASFV per 1 log at temperature T. The mean D60, D70, D80 and D85 of meat and bone meal (MBM), soybean meal (SBM), and maize grain (MZ) are in the ranges 5.11-6.78, 2.19-3.01, 0.99-2.02, and 0.16-0.99 min, respectively. DT is used to compare the heat resistance of ASFV in the feed ingredient matrices. The mean DT of ASFV in MBM, SBM and MZ was not statistically significant, and the heat resistance of ASFV in MBM, SBM, and MZ was not different at 60, 70, 80, or 85 °C. The multiple DT was used to develop a DT model to predict DT at various inactivation temperatures. The DT models for MBM, SBM, and MZ are log DT = - [Formula: see text] + 2.69, log DT = - [Formula: see text] + 2.55, and log DT = - [Formula: see text] + 4.01. To expand and ease the field applications, a spreadsheet predicting the DT and the inactivation time (with 95% confidence interval) from these DT models is available to download.
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9
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Nuanualsuwan S, Songkasupa T, Boonpornprasert P, Suwankitwat N, Lohlamoh W, Nuengjamnong C. Persistence of African swine fever virus on porous and non-porous fomites at environmental temperatures. Porcine Health Manag 2022; 8:34. [PMID: 35902922 PMCID: PMC9331492 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-022-00277-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal contagious disease affecting both domestic pigs and wild boars. Even though it is a non-zoonotic disease, ASF causes economic loss in swine industries across continents. ASF control and eradication are almost impossible since effective vaccines and direct antiviral treatment are not available. The persistence of ASFV on fomites plays an important role in the indirect transmission of ASFV to pigs encountering ASFV-contaminated fomites. ASFV persistence on porous and non-porous fomites (glass, metal, rubber, and cellulose paper) at different environmental temperatures was determined. The persistence of ASFV of fomites was determined by the rate of ASFV inactivation in terms of DT, or the time required to reduce ASFV per 1 log at each selected environmental temperature (T). DT is used to compare the persistence of ASFV on the fomites. Results The mean D25, D33, and D42, of dried infectious ASFV on glass, metal, rubber, and paper were in the ranges 1.42–2.42, 0.72–1.94, and 0.07–0.23 days, respectively. The multiple DT were used to develop a DT model to predict the DT for some other environmental temperatures. The DT models to predict the persistence of dried infectious ASFV on glass, metal, rubber, and paper are log DT = (− T/21.51) + 1.34, log DT = (− T/20.42) + 1.47, log DT = (− T/14.91) + 2.03, and log DT = (− T/10.91) + 2.84, respectively. A spreadsheet as a quick and handy tool predicting the persistence time of dried infectious ASFV on fomites at various environmental temperatures based on these DT models is available for public to download. Conclusion Persistence of dried infectious ASFV on paper are significantly the longest at lower environmental temperatures whereas that of dried infectious ASFV on paper is significantly the shortest at higher environmental temperature. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40813-022-00277-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suphachai Nuanualsuwan
- Department of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. .,Center of Excellence for Food and Water Risk Analysis (FAWRA), Department of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
| | - Tapanut Songkasupa
- Virology Laboratory, National Institute of Animal Health, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | | | - Walaiporn Lohlamoh
- Virology Laboratory, National Institute of Animal Health, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chackrit Nuengjamnong
- Department of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Center of Excellence for Food and Water Risk Analysis (FAWRA), Department of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
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10
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Patience JF, Ramirez A. Invited review: strategic adoption of antibiotic-free pork production: the importance of a holistic approach. Transl Anim Sci 2022; 6:txac063. [PMID: 35854972 PMCID: PMC9278845 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txac063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery of the use of antibiotics to enhance growth in the 1950s proved to be one of the most dramatic and influential in the history of animal agriculture. Antibiotics have served animal agriculture, as well as human and animal medicine, well for more than seven decades, but emerging from this tremendous success has been the phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance. Consequently, human medicine and animal agriculture are being called upon, through legislation and/or marketplace demands, to reduce or eliminate antibiotics as growth promotants and even as therapeutics. As explained in this review, adoption of antibiotic-free (ABF) pork production would represent a sea change. By identifying key areas requiring attention, the clear message of this review is that success with ABF production, also referred to as "no antibiotics ever," demands a multifaceted and multidisciplinary approach. Too frequently, the topic has been approached in a piecemeal fashion by considering only one aspect of production, such as the use of certain feed additives or the adjustment in health management. Based on the literature and on practical experience, a more holistic approach is essential. It will require the modification of diet formulations to not only provide essential nutrients and energy, but to also maximize the effectiveness of normal immunological and physiological capabilities that support good health. It must also include the selection of effective non-antibiotic feed additives along with functional ingredients that have been shown to improve the utility and architecture of the gastrointestinal tract, to improve the microbiome, and to support the immune system. This holistic approach will require refining animal management strategies, including selection for more robust genetics, greater focus on care during the particularly sensitive perinatal and post-weaning periods, and practices that minimize social and environmental stressors. A clear strategy is needed to reduce pathogen load in the barn, such as greater emphasis on hygiene and biosecurity, adoption of a strategic vaccine program and the universal adoption of all-in-all-out housing. Of course, overall health management of the herd, as well as the details of animal flows, cannot be ignored. These management areas will support the basic biology of the pig in avoiding or, where necessary, overcoming pathogen challenges without the need for antibiotics, or at least with reduced usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Patience
- Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- Iowa Pork Industry Center, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-1178, USA
| | - Alejandro Ramirez
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Oro Valley, AZ 85737, USA
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11
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Niederwerder MC, Hefley TJ. Diagnostic sensitivity of porcine biological samples for detecting African swine fever virus infection after natural consumption in feed and liquid. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:2727-2734. [PMID: 34914859 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a global threat to swine production and sustainable pork supply. Without a commercially available vaccine, prevention of ASFV entry and spread is reliant on biosecurity and early detection of infection. Although ASFV ingestion in swill or feed by naïve pigs is a likely route of initial introduction, controlled experimental studies rarely utilize natural consumption as the infection route. In the current study, we utilized biological samples collected from pigs 5 days after natural consumption of ASFV in feed and liquid to assess diagnostic sensitivity for early detection of virus infection. Biological samples (serum, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, and faeces) were assessed for the presence of ASFV using quantitative PCR and virus isolation. Statistical methods modelled the detection sensitivity of each sample type with each diagnostic assay in individual samples. Our results provide important information that can be incorporated into ASFV surveillance programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan C Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Trevor J Hefley
- Department of Statistics, College of Arts and Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
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12
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Phillips FC, Rubach JK, Poss MJ, Anam S, Goyal SM, Dee SA. Monoglyceride reduces viability of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus in feed and prevents disease transmission to post-weaned piglets. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:121-127. [PMID: 34698444 PMCID: PMC9299018 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Outbreaks of African swine fever virus (ASFv) and porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDv) have revealed the susceptibility of livestock to disease transmitted through feed. Several viruses, including PEDv, survive in feed and may introduce disease that causes significant morbidity and mortality. In 2013, PEDv, which causes severe diarrhoea and vomiting, reached North America after spreading for decades across Eurasia. The global exchange of ingredients has created demand for products that prevent disease transmission from feed. Formaldehyde-based products are highly effective at inactivating enveloped viruses when applied at 3.25 kg/t. Alternative products to formaldehyde, including carboxylic acids, essential oils and medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs), have exhibited mixed efficacy against PEDv and require application rates higher than formaldehyde. Amphiphilic molecules like MCFAs disrupt the bilayer-lipid membranes that protect viral nucleic acids through the formation of micelles. Monoglycerides form micelles at lower concentrations than MCFAs, which suggests they may be more potent against enveloped viruses. The potential efficacy of monoglycerides against enveloped viruses in feed led to the development and examination of an experimental monoglyceride blend. The proprietary monoglyceride blend significantly (p < .0001) reduced PEDv viability in vitro after application to feed at 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 kg/t. The monoglyceride was tested in a natural feeding behaviour challenge model in piglets. The feed was contaminated with ice-blocks containing viable PEDv, and the piglets were exposed to PEDv through the feed bin for 20 days. At the end of the 20-day challenge period, all pigs were rectally swabbed and tested for PEDv by qPCR. In the untreated control group 54.8% of the piglets tested positive for PEDv, whereas none of the MCFA-treated feed (10 kg/t inclusion) transmitted PEDv. Strikingly, the monoglyceride-treated groups (1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 kg/t) all exhibited 100% protection from PEDv. These data support the use of this proprietary monoglyceride blend in mitigation and prevention of viral disease transmission to piglets from contaminated feed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sidra Anam
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota.,Department of Microbiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Sagar M Goyal
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
| | - Scott A Dee
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone, Minnesota
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13
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Abstract
A review of African swine fever (ASF) was conducted, including manifestations of disease, its transmission and environmental persistence of ASF virus. Findings on infectious doses of contemporary highly-pathogenic strains isolated from outbreaks in Eastern Europe were included. Published data on disinfectant susceptibility of ASF virus were then compared with similar findings for selected other infectious agents, principally those used in the UK disinfectant approvals tests relating to relevant Disease Orders for the control of notifiable and zoonotic diseases of livestock. These are: swine vesicular disease virus, foot and mouth disease virus, Newcastle disease virus and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. The comparative data thus obtained, presented in a series of charts, facilitated estimates of efficacy against ASF virus for some UK approved disinfectants when applied at their respective General Orders concentrations. Substantial data gaps were encountered for several disinfectant agents or classes, including peracetic acid, quaternary ammonium compounds and products based on phenols and cresols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Wales
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Vet School Main Building, Daphne Jackson Road, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7AL, UK
| | - Robert H Davies
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
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14
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DeLong RK, Swanson R, Niederwerder MC, Khanal P, Aryal S, Marasini R, Jaberi-Douraki M, Shakeri H, Mazloom R, Schneider S, Ensley S, Clarke LL, Woode RA, Young S, Rayamajhi S, Miesner T, Higginbotham ML, Lin Z, Shrestha T, Ghosh K, Glaspell G, Mathew EN. Zn-based physiometacomposite nanoparticles: distribution, tolerance, imaging, and antiviral and anticancer activity. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2021; 16:1857-1872. [PMID: 34282923 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2021-0179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution, tolerance, and anticancer and antiviral activity of Zn-based physiometacomposites (PMCs). Manganese, iron, nickel and cobalt-doped ZnO, ZnS or ZnSe were synthesized. Cell uptake, distribution into 3D culture and mice, and biochemical and chemotherapeutic activity were studied by fluorescence/bioluminescence, confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, viability, antitumor and virus titer assays. Luminescence and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis showed that nanoparticle distribution was liver >spleen >kidney >lung >brain, without tissue or blood pathology. Photophysical characterization as ex vivo tissue probes and LL37 peptide, antisense oligomer or aptamer delivery targeting RAS/Ras binding domain (RBD) was investigated. Treatment at 25 μg/ml for 48 h showed ≥98-99% cell viability, 3D organoid uptake, 3-log inhibition of β-Galactosidase and porcine reproductive respiratory virus infection. Data support the preclinical development of PMCs for imaging and delivery targeting cancer and infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert K DeLong
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Nanotechnology Innovation Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Ryan Swanson
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Nanotechnology Innovation Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Megan C Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Pratiksha Khanal
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Santosh Aryal
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Health Outcomes, The Ben and Maytee Fisch College of Pharmacy, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75799, USA
| | - Ramesh Marasini
- Nanotechnology Innovation Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Majid Jaberi-Douraki
- 1DATA Consortium, & Department of Mathematics, Kansas State University Olathe, Olathe, KS 66061, USA
| | - Heman Shakeri
- 1DATA Consortium, & Department of Mathematics, Kansas State University Olathe, Olathe, KS 66061, USA
| | - Reza Mazloom
- 1DATA Consortium, & Department of Mathematics, Kansas State University Olathe, Olathe, KS 66061, USA
| | - Sarah Schneider
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Steve Ensley
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Lane L Clarke
- Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Rowena A Woode
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Sarah Young
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Sagar Rayamajhi
- Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Tracy Miesner
- Comparative Medicine Group, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Mary L Higginbotham
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Zhoumeng Lin
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Institute for Computational Comparative Medicine, Kansas State University Manhattan, KS 66061, USA
| | - Tej Shrestha
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,Nanotechnology Innovation Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - Kartik Ghosh
- Department of Physics, Astronomy & Materials Science, Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65897, USA
| | - Garry Glaspell
- US Army Corps of Engineers Engineer Research & Development Center, Alexandria, VA 22315, USA
| | - Elza N Mathew
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA.,University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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15
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Stenfeldt C, Bertram MR, Meek HC, Hartwig EJ, Smoliga GR, Niederwerder MC, Diel DG, Dee SA, Arzt J. The risk and mitigation of foot-and-mouth disease virus infection of pigs through consumption of contaminated feed. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:72-87. [PMID: 34237198 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Transboundary movement of animal feed and feed ingredients has been identified as a route for pathogen incursions. While imports of animals and animal-derived products are highly regulated for the purpose of infectious disease prevention, there has been less consideration of the viability of infectious agents in inanimate products, such as feed. This study investigated the ability of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) to remain infectious as a contaminant of commercial whole pig feed and select pig feed ingredients, and to establish the minimum infectious dose (MIDF ) required to cause foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in pigs that consumed contaminated feed. FMDV viability in vitro varied depending on virus strain, feed product, and storage temperature, with increased duration of infectivity in soybean meal compared to pelleted whole feed. Specifically, both strains of FMDV evaluated remained viable through to the end of the 37 day observation period in experimentally contaminated soybean meal stored at 4 or 20°C . The MIDF for pigs consuming contaminated feed varied across virus strains and exposure duration in the range of 106.2 to 107 TCID50 . The ability of FMDV to cause infection in exposed pigs was mitigated by pre-treatment of feed with two commercially available feed additives, based on either formaldehyde (SalCURB®) or lactic acid (Guardian™). Our findings demonstrate that FMDV may remain infectious in pig feed ingredients for durations compatible with transoceanic transport. Although the observed MIDF was relatively high, variations in feeding conditions and biophysical characteristics of different virus strains may alter the probability of infection. These findings may be used to parameterize modelling of the risk of FMDV incursions and to regulate feed importation to minimize the risk of inadvertent importation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Stenfeldt
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA.,Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Miranda R Bertram
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
| | - Haillie C Meek
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA.,PIADC Research participation program, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ethan J Hartwig
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
| | - George R Smoliga
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
| | - Megan C Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Diego G Diel
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Scott A Dee
- Pipestone Applied Research, Pipestone Veterinary Services, Pipestone, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, New York, USA
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16
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Shurson GC, Urriola PE, van de Ligt JLG. Can we effectively manage parasites, prions, and pathogens in the global feed industry to achieve One Health? Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:4-30. [PMID: 34171167 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Prions and certain endoparasites, bacteria, and viruses are internationally recognized as types of disease-causing biological agents that can be transmitted from contaminated feed to animals. Historically, foodborne biological hazards such as prions (transmissible spongiform encephalopathy), endoparasites (Trichinella spiralis, Toxoplasma gondii), and pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157, Clostridium spp., and Campylobacter spp.) were major food safety concerns from feeding uncooked or improperly heated animal-derived food waste and by-products. However, implementation of validated thermal processing conditions along with verifiable quality control procedures has been effective in enabling safe use of these feed materials in animal diets. More recently, the occurrence of global Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus and African Swine Fever Virus epidemics, dependence on international feed ingredient supply chains, and the discovery that these viruses can survive in some feed ingredient matrices under environmental conditions of trans-oceanic shipments has created an urgent need to develop and implement rigorous biosecurity protocols that prevent and control animal viruses in feed ingredients. Implementation of verifiable risk-based preventive controls, traceability systems from origin to destination, and effective mitigation procedures is essential to minimize these food security, safety, and sustainability threats. Creating a new biosafety and biosecurity framework will enable convergence of the diverging One Health components involving low environmental impact and functional feed ingredients that are perceived as having elevated biosafety risks when used in animal feeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald C Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Pedro E Urriola
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jennifer L G van de Ligt
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
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17
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Khanal P, Olcha M, Niederwerder MC. Detection of African swine fever virus in feed dust collected from experimentally inoculated complete feed using quantitative PCR and virus titration assays. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:97-102. [PMID: 34132048 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a current threat to global pork production due to its high case fatality rate, lack of efficacious vaccine and recent transboundary spread into new regions of the world. Preventing introduction and further spread of ASFV is critical for countries currently negative for the virus. ASFV is stable in feed ingredients subjected to transoceanic conditions and transmission occurs through the natural consumption of contaminated feed. In this study, we investigated the use of feed dust collected from experimentally inoculated feed as a novel diagnostic sample type for ASFV detection. Moist swabs were used to collect dust from creep feeders after natural consumption of feed inoculated with 3.1-5.4 log10 TCID50 /g ASFV Georgia 2007 in the presence and absence of antimicrobial feed additives. Results validate the potential use of feed dust swabs as a novel diagnostic surveillance tool for detection and quantification of viral nucleic acid and infectious virus titre in ASFV-contaminated feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratiksha Khanal
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Matthew Olcha
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
| | - Megan C Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA
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18
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Shurson GC, Palowski A, van de Ligt JLG, Schroeder DC, Balestreri C, Urriola PE, Sampedro F. New perspectives for evaluating relative risks of African swine fever virus contamination in global feed ingredient supply chains. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:31-56. [PMID: 34076354 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
There are no published reports indicating that the African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been detected in feed ingredients or complete feed. This is primarily because there are only a few laboratories in the world that have the biosecurity and analytical capabilities of detecting ASFV in feed. Several in vitro studies have been conducted to evaluate ASFV concentration, viability and inactivation when ASFV was added to various feed ingredients and complete feed. These inoculation studies have shown that some feed matrices support virus survival longer than others and the reasons for this are unknown. Current analytical methodologies have significant limitations in sensitivity, repeatability, ability to detect viable virus particles and association with infectivity. As a result, interpretation of findings using various measures may lead to misleading conclusions. Because of analytical and technical challenges, as well as the lack of ASFV contamination data in feed supply chains, quantitative risk assessments have not been conducted. A few qualitative risk assessments have been conducted, but they have not considered differences in potential scenarios for ASFV contamination between various types of feed ingredient supply chains. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a more holistic understanding of the relative potential risks of ASFV contamination in various global feed ingredient supply chains and provide recommendations for addressing the challenges identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald C Shurson
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Amanda Palowski
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jennifer L G van de Ligt
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Declan C Schroeder
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Cecilia Balestreri
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Pedro E Urriola
- Department of Animal Science, College of Food Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Fernando Sampedro
- Environmental Health Sciences Division, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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19
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Niederwerder MC. Risk and Mitigation of African Swine Fever Virus in Feed. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11030792. [PMID: 33803495 PMCID: PMC7998236 DOI: 10.3390/ani11030792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary African swine fever is the most significant disease threat to swine globally, and recent introductions into previously negative countries has heightened the risk for disease spread. Without an effective vaccine or treatment, the primary objective of negative countries is to prevent African swine fever virus infection in pigs. Significant quantities of feed ingredients used for swine diets are traded worldwide and may be imported from countries with African swine fever. If feed ingredients are contaminated with the virus, they can serve as potential routes for the introduction and transmission of African swine fever virus. This review provides information on the risk of African swine fever virus in feed and the mitigation strategies that may help protect the global swine population from introduction and spread through feed. Abstract Since the 2013 introduction of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus into the United States (U.S.), feed and feed ingredients have been recognized as potential routes for the introduction and transmission of foreign animal diseases of swine. Feed ingredients for swine diets are commodities traded worldwide, and the U.S. imports thousands of metric tons of feed ingredients each year from countries with circulating foreign animal diseases. African swine fever (ASF) is the most significant foreign animal disease threat to U.S. swine production, and the recent introduction of ASF into historically negative countries has heightened the risk for further spread. Laboratory investigations have characterized the stability of the ASF virus (ASFV) in feed ingredients subjected to transoceanic shipment conditions, ASFV transmissibility through the natural consumption of plant-based feed, and the mitigation potential of certain feed additives to inactivate ASFV in feed. This review describes the current knowledge of feed as a risk for swine viruses and the opportunities for mitigating the risk to protect U.S. pork production and the global swine population from ASF and other foreign animal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan C Niederwerder
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, 1800 Denison Avenue, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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20
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Yoon BK, Jeon WY, Sut TN, Cho NJ, Jackman JA. Stopping Membrane-Enveloped Viruses with Nanotechnology Strategies: Toward Antiviral Drug Development and Pandemic Preparedness. ACS NANO 2021; 15:125-148. [PMID: 33306354 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c07489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Membrane-enveloped viruses are a leading cause of viral epidemics, and there is an outstanding need to develop broad-spectrum antiviral strategies to treat and prevent enveloped virus infections. In this review, we critically discuss why the lipid membrane surrounding enveloped virus particles is a promising antiviral target and cover the latest progress in nanotechnology research to design and evaluate membrane-targeting virus inhibition strategies. These efforts span diverse topics such as nanomaterials, self-assembly, biosensors, nanomedicine, drug delivery, and medical devices and have excellent potential to support the development of next-generation antiviral drug candidates and technologies. Application examples in the areas of human medicine and agricultural biosecurity are also presented. Looking forward, research in this direction is poised to strengthen capabilities for virus pandemic preparedness and demonstrates how nanotechnology strategies can help to solve global health challenges related to infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Kyeong Yoon
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Yong Jeon
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Tun Naw Sut
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
| | - Nam-Joon Cho
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
| | - Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Institute for Convergence at SKKU (BICS), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
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21
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Alarcón LV, Allepuz A, Mateu E. Biosecurity in pig farms: a review. Porcine Health Manag 2021; 7:5. [PMID: 33397483 PMCID: PMC7780598 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-020-00181-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The perception of the importance of animal health and its relationship with biosecurity has increased in recent years with the emergence and re-emergence of several diseases difficult to control. This is particularly evident in the case of pig farming as shown by the recent episodes of African swine fever or porcine epidemic diarrhoea. Moreover, a better biosecurity may help to improve productivity and may contribute to reducing the use of antibiotics. Biosecurity can be defined as the application of measures aimed to reduce the probability of the introduction (external biosecurity) and further spread of pathogens within the farm (internal biosecurity). Thus, the key idea is to avoid transmission, either between farms or within the farm. This implies knowledge of the epidemiology of the diseases to be avoided that is not always available, but since ways of transmission of pathogens are limited to a few, it is possible to implement effective actions even with some gaps in our knowledge on a given disease. For the effective design of a biosecurity program, veterinarians must know how diseases are transmitted, the risks and their importance, which mitigation measures are thought to be more effective and how to evaluate the biosecurity and its improvements. This review provides a source of information on external and internal biosecurity measures that reduce risks in swine production and the relationship between these measures and the epidemiology of the main diseases, as well as a description of some systems available for risk analysis and the assessment of biosecurity. Also, it reviews the factors affecting the successful application of a biosecurity plan in a pig farm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Valeria Alarcón
- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 60 y 118, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Alberto Allepuz
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Travessera dels Turons s/n, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain.,Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CreSA-IRTA-UAB), campus UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enric Mateu
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Travessera dels Turons s/n, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain.,Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CreSA-IRTA-UAB), campus UAB, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
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22
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Jackman JA, Hakobyan A, Zakaryan H, Elrod CC. Inhibition of African swine fever virus in liquid and feed by medium-chain fatty acids and glycerol monolaurate. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2020; 11:114. [PMID: 33292608 PMCID: PMC7722453 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-020-00517-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ongoing African swine fever virus (ASFv) epidemic has had a major impact on pig production globally and biosecurity efforts to curb ASFv infectivity and transmission are a high priority. It has been recently identified that feed and feed ingredients, along with drinking water, can serve as transmission vehicles and might facilitate transboundary spread of ASFv. Thus, it is important to test the antiviral activity of regulatory compatible, antiviral feed additives that might inhibit ASFv infectivity in feed. One promising group of feed additive candidates includes medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) and monoglyceride derivatives, which are known to disrupt the lipid membrane surrounding certain enveloped viruses and bacteria. RESULTS The antiviral activities of selected MCFA, namely caprylic, capric, and lauric acids, and a related monoglyceride, glycerol monolaurate (GML), to inhibit ASFv in liquid and feed conditions were investigated and suitable compounds and inclusion rates were identified that might be useful for mitigating ASFv in feed environments. Antiviral assays showed that all tested MCFA and GML inhibit ASFv. GML was more potent than MCFA because it worked at a lower concentration and inhibited ASFv due to direct virucidal activity along with one or more other antiviral mechanisms. Dose-dependent feed experiments further showed that sufficiently high GML doses can significantly reduce ASFv infectivity in feed in a linear manner in periods as short as 30 min, as determined by infectious viral titer measurements. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) experiments revealed that GML treatment also hinders antibody recognition of the membrane-associated ASFv p72 structural protein, which likely relates to protein conformational changes arising from viral membrane disruption. CONCLUSION Together, the findings in this study indicate that MCFA and GML inhibit ASFv in liquid conditions and that GML is also able to reduce ASFv infectivity in feed, which may help to curb disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Jackman
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
| | - Astghik Hakobyan
- Group of Antiviral Defense Mechanisms, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Hovakim Zakaryan
- Group of Antiviral Defense Mechanisms, Institute of Molecular Biology of NAS, Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Charles C Elrod
- Natural Biologics Inc., Newfield, NY, 14867, USA.
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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