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Shim J, Kang S, Jeong Y, Lee E, Jeong D, Seo K. Comparison of iridocorneal angle parameters measured by spectral domain optical coherence tomography and ultrasound biomicroscopy in dogs. Vet Ophthalmol 2021; 25 Suppl 1:103-110. [PMID: 34784106 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the measurements of iridocorneal angle parameters between spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) and ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) in dogs. ANIMALS STUDIED AND PROCEDURES A total of 47 eyes of dogs were scanned at the temporal limbus using SD-OCT and UBM. Iridocorneal angle (ICA) and angle opening distance (AOD) were measured from the obtained images accordingly. The intra-observer and inter-observer reproducibility were evaluated using the intraclass correlation coefficient. To evaluate intra-observer reproducibility, measurements of the first and second grading from the first examiner were compared. To evaluate inter-observer reproducibility, measurements between the two examiners were compared. Agreement between ICA and AOD for SD-OCT and UBM was evaluated using Bland-Altman plots. RESULTS In the first grading, the mean ICA and AOD for SD-OCT were 31.4 ± 6.4° and 641.4 ± 270.8 µm, respectively. The mean ICA and AOD for UBM were 32.0 ± 4.8° and 700.4 ± 238.8 µm, respectively. For ICA and AOD measurements, intra-observer reproducibility was excellent for both devices, whereas inter-observer reproducibility was excellent for SD-OCT and good for UBM. The mean difference in ICA between SD-OCT and UBM was 0.6° with a limit of agreement (LoA) span of 18.9°. The mean difference in AOD between SD-OCT and UBM was 58.9 µm with a LoA span of 804.4 µm. CONCLUSIONS Spectral domain optical coherence tomography is an effective non-contact imaging modality for the evaluation of canine iridocorneal angle parameters in a clinical setting. Reproducibility of measurements obtained is comparable or superior to UBM, but values obtained by SD-OCT and UBM for AOD are not interchangeable between devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaeho Shim
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seonmi Kang
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Youngseok Jeong
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eunji Lee
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dajeong Jeong
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kangmoon Seo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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Li Puma MC, Pederson SL, Johnston MS, Cleymaet AM, Crawford AC, Dinger SC, Li Puma LC, Freeman KS. The effects of single-dose administration of two topical antiglaucoma medications, 0.005% latanoprost and 0.125% demecarium bromide, on intraocular pressure and iridocorneal angle parameters in nonglaucomatous companion rabbits. J Exot Pet Med 2021. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2020.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Fentiman KE, Rankin AJ, Meekins JM, Roush JK. Effect of topical ophthalmic administration of 0.005% latanoprost solution on aqueous humor flow rate and intraocular pressure in ophthalmologically normal adult Beagles. Am J Vet Res 2019; 80:498-504. [PMID: 31034278 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.80.5.498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of topical ophthalmic administration of 0.005% latanoprost solution on aqueous humor flow rate (AHFR) and intraocular pressure (IOP) in ophthalmologically normal dogs. ANIMALS 12 adult Beagles. PROCEDURES In a masked crossover design involving two 10-day experimental periods separated by a 7-day washout period, dogs were randomly assigned to first receive latanoprost or artificial tears (control) solution and then the opposite treatment in the later experimental period. Each experimental period was divided into a baseline phase (days 1 to 3), baseline fluorophotometry assessment (day 4), treatment phase (1 drop of latanoprost or artificial tears solution administered twice daily in each eye on days 5 to 9 and once on day 10), and posttreatment fluorophotometry assessment (day 10). Measured fluorescein concentrations were used to calculate baseline and posttreatment AHFRs. The IOP was measured 5 times/d in each eye during baseline and treatment (days 5 to 9) phases. RESULTS Mean baseline and posttreatment AHFR values did not differ significantly in either experimental period (latanoprost or control). In the latanoprost period, mean IOP was significantly lower during treatment than at baseline; there was no difference in corresponding IOP values during the control period. In the latanoprost period, mean IOP was significantly higher on the first day of treatment than on subsequent treatment days. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE In ophthalmologically normal dogs, topical ophthalmic administration of 0.005% latanoprost solution significantly decreased IOP but did not affect AHFR. Thus, the ocular hypotensive effect of latanoprost did not appear to have been caused by a reduction in aqueous humor production. (Am J Vet Res 2019;80:498-504).
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Komáromy AM, Bras D, Esson DW, Fellman RL, Grozdanic SD, Kagemann L, Miller PE, Moroi SE, Plummer CE, Sapienza JS, Storey ES, Teixeira LB, Toris CB, Webb TR. The future of canine glaucoma therapy. Vet Ophthalmol 2019; 22:726-740. [PMID: 31106969 PMCID: PMC6744300 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Canine glaucoma is a group of disorders that are generally associated with increased intraocular pressure (IOP) resulting in a characteristic optic neuropathy. Glaucoma is a leading cause of irreversible vision loss in dogs and may be either primary or secondary. Despite the growing spectrum of medical and surgical therapies, there is no cure, and many affected dogs go blind. Often eyes are enucleated because of painfully high, uncontrollable IOP. While progressive vision loss due to primary glaucoma is considered preventable in some humans, this is mostly not true for dogs. There is an urgent need for more effective, affordable treatment options. Because newly developed glaucoma medications are emerging at a very slow rate and may not be effective in dogs, work toward improving surgical options may be the most rewarding approach in the near term. This Viewpoint Article summarizes the discussions and recommended research strategies of both a Think Tank and a Consortium focused on the development of more effective therapies for canine glaucoma; both were organized and funded by the American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists Vision for Animals Foundation (ACVO-VAF). The recommendations consist of (a) better understanding of disease mechanisms, (b) early glaucoma diagnosis and disease staging, (c) optimization of IOP-lowering medical treatment, (d) new surgical therapies to control IOP, and (e) novel treatment strategies, such as gene and stem cell therapies, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration. In order to address these needs, increases in research funding specifically focused on canine glaucoma are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- András M Komáromy
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Dineli Bras
- Centro de Especialistas Veterinarios de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | | | | | | | - Larry Kagemann
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland.,New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York.,Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Paul E Miller
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Sayoko E Moroi
- Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Caryn E Plummer
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | | | - Eric S Storey
- South Atlanta Veterinary Emergency & Specialty, Fayetteville, Georgia
| | - Leandro B Teixeira
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Carol B Toris
- Truhlsen Eye Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Terah R Webb
- MedVet Medical & Cancer Centers for Pets, Worthington, Ohio
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Seal JR, Robinson MR, Burke J, Bejanian M, Coote M, Attar M. Intracameral Sustained-Release Bimatoprost Implant Delivers Bimatoprost to Target Tissues with Reduced Drug Exposure to Off-Target Tissues. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2018; 35:50-57. [PMID: 30335560 PMCID: PMC6354606 DOI: 10.1089/jop.2018.0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To explore the ocular distribution of bimatoprost after intracameral administration of a biodegradable sustained-release bimatoprost implant (Bimatoprost SR) versus repeated topical administration of bimatoprost 0.03% ophthalmic solution in dogs. Bimatoprost SR and topical bimatoprost 0.03% previously were shown to have similar intraocular pressure-lowering effects in humans in a phase 1/2 clinical trial. Methods: Twenty-four beagle dogs received either once-daily topical bimatoprost 0.03% for 7 days or a bilateral intracameral administration of Bimatoprost SR (15 μg). At predetermined time points, ocular tissues were collected and concentrations of bimatoprost and bimatoprost acid were quantified using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Results: Bimatoprost SR administration enhanced delivery of study drug to a site of action [iris–ciliary body (ICB)] compared with topical bimatoprost (Cmax [bimatoprost+bimatoprost acid] = 18,200 and 4.13 ng/g, respectively). However, distribution of drug to tissues associated with prostaglandin analog (PGA)-related side effects (i.e., bulbar conjunctiva, eyelid margins, and periorbital fat) was limited following Bimatoprost SR administration (Cmax [bimatoprost+bimatoprost acid] = BLQ [beneath the limit of quantitation] to 0.354 ng/g) compared with topical dosing (Cmax [bimatoprost+bimatoprost acid] = 36.6–2,110 ng/g). Conclusions: Bimatoprost SR administration in dogs selectively delivered drug to the ICB with low or undetectable drug levels in ocular surface and extraocular tissues. Use of Bimatoprost SR for glaucoma treatment may reduce the incidence of adverse events typically associated with topical PGAs by targeting bimatoprost delivery to the key site of action of the PGA class and reducing exposure to off-target tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Michael Coote
- 2 Center for Eye Research Australia, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
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Mancino R, Di Carlo E, Napoli D, Martucci A, Mauro A, Rp S, Cesareo M, Nucci C. Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography Analysis of Iris Morphometric Changes Induced by Prostaglandin Analogues Treatment in Patients with Primary Open Angle Glaucoma or Ocular Hypertension. Open Ophthalmol J 2018; 12:110-120. [PMID: 30123376 PMCID: PMC6062901 DOI: 10.2174/1874364101812010110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background:
The study aimed to evaluate iris thickness changes in patients with Primary Open Angle Glaucoma (POAG) or Ocular Hypertension (OHT) under treatment with Prostaglandin Analogues (PG). Objectives: Primary outcome measures were iris thickness at the region of Dilator Muscle Region (DMR) and Sphincter Muscle Region (SMR). DMR/SMR ratio was also evaluated. The secondary outcome was the correlation between PG treatment length and iris parameters. Methods: The charts of patients with POAG or OHT who underwent Visante OCT were retrospectively selected. The patients were divided in a group using PG for at least 6 months and a group using hypotensive drops not including PG or alpha-adrenergic agonists. A third group included healthy subjects. Result: 98 subjects were selected. Patients with POAG or OHT using PG eyedrops showed a significant iris thickness reduction at DMR compared to healthy subjects and to patients using hypotensive eyedrops not containing PG. Significantly higher SMR thickness values were found in PG group compared to both control groups. DMR/SMR ratio significantly reduced in PG group. No correlation was found between PG treatment length and iris parameters. Conclusion: The present data indicate that PG treatment induced DMR thickness reduction and an increase in SMR thickness. These changes were not related to the duration of PG exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mancino
- Ophthalmology Unit, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - E Di Carlo
- Ophthalmology Unit, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - D Napoli
- Ophthalmology Unit, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - A Martucci
- Ophthalmology Unit, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - A Mauro
- Department of Ophthalmology, "San Giovanni Evangelista" Hospital, Tivoli (RM), Italy
| | - Sorge Rp
- Laboratory of Biometry, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - M Cesareo
- Ophthalmology Unit, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - C Nucci
- Ophthalmology Unit, Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
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Beamer G, Reilly CM, Pizzirani S. Microscopic Lesions in Canine Eyes with Primary Glaucoma. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2016; 45:1213-33, vi. [PMID: 26456753 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Although the clinical classification of primary glaucoma in dogs is quite simple, the phenotypes of glaucoma in most of the species are indeed multiple. Ophthalmologists can often evaluate the dynamic changes of clinical signs at different times in the course of the disease, whereas pathologists are often presented with globes that have undergone abundant therapies and are at the end stage. Therefore, an open collaboration between clinicians and pathologists can produce the most accurate interpretation in the pathology report and improve patient outcomes. This article focuses on the histomorphologic elements that characterize, and are important to, canine primary glaucomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian Beamer
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA.
| | - Christopher M Reilly
- Microbiology & Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Stefano Pizzirani
- Ophthalmology, Department of Clinical Sciences, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
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Pizzirani S. Definition, Classification, and Pathophysiology of Canine Glaucoma. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2016; 45:1127-57, v. [PMID: 26456751 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Glaucoma is a common ocular condition in humans and dogs leading to optic nerve degeneration and irreversible blindness. Primary glaucoma is a group of spontaneous heterogeneous diseases. Multiple factors are involved in its pathogenesis and these factors vary across human ethnic groups and canine breeds, so the clinical phenotypes are numerous and their classification can be challenging and remain superficial. Aging and oxidative stress are major triggers for the manifestation of disease. Multiple, intertwined inflammatory and biochemical cascades eventually alter cellular and extracellular physiology in the optic nerve and trabecular meshwork and lead to vision loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Pizzirani
- Ophthalmology, Department of Clinical Science, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA.
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Park S, Kang S, Lee E, Kwak J, Park E, Lim J, Seo K. Ultrasound biomicroscopic study of the effects of topical latanoprost on the anterior segment and ciliary body thickness in dogs. Vet Ophthalmol 2015; 19:498-503. [DOI: 10.1111/vop.12339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sangwan Park
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science; Seoul National University; 1 Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu Seoul 151-742 Korea
| | - Seonmi Kang
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science; Seoul National University; 1 Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu Seoul 151-742 Korea
| | - Euiri Lee
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science; Seoul National University; 1 Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu Seoul 151-742 Korea
| | - Jiyoon Kwak
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science; Seoul National University; 1 Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu Seoul 151-742 Korea
| | - Eunjin Park
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science; Seoul National University; 1 Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu Seoul 151-742 Korea
| | - Jaegook Lim
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science; Seoul National University; 1 Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu Seoul 151-742 Korea
| | - Kangmoon Seo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science; Seoul National University; 1 Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu Seoul 151-742 Korea
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Kahane N, Raskansky H, Bdolah-Abram T, Ofri R. The effects of topical parasympatholytic drugs on pupil diameter and intraocular pressure in healthy dogs treated with 0.005% latanoprost. Vet Ophthalmol 2015; 19:464-472. [DOI: 10.1111/vop.12330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nili Kahane
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Rehovot 7610001 Israel
| | - Hilli Raskansky
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Rehovot 7610001 Israel
| | - Tali Bdolah-Abram
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Rehovot 7610001 Israel
| | - Ron Ofri
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine; The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Rehovot 7610001 Israel
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Tofflemire KL, Whitley EM, Allbaugh RA, Ben-Shlomo G, Robinson CC, Overton TL, Thiessen CE, Evans EA, Griggs AN, Adelman SA, Ludwig AL, Jens JK, Ellinwood NM, Peterson CS, Whitley RD. Comparison of two- and three-times-daily topical ophthalmic application of 0.005% latanoprost solution in clinically normal dogs. Am J Vet Res 2015; 76:625-31. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.76.7.625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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12
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Maślanka T. Pharmacology of topical prostaglandin F2 α analogs and their place in the treatment of glaucoma in small animals. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2014; 38:105-12. [PMID: 25230091 DOI: 10.1111/jvp.12161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A distinguishing feature of the most common types of glaucoma is an increased intra-ocular pressure (IOP), which has a damaging effect on optic nerve axons, leading to the progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells. Therefore, IOP-lowering medications are the mainstay of glaucoma therapy. Topical prostaglandin F2 α analogs (PGAs) are a relatively new class of ocular hypotensive drugs, which have made a huge impact on the treatment of glaucoma in dogs. This study summarizes the current state of knowledge on the mechanism of action of these agents and their effect on IOP in dogs and cats. It also discusses potential harmful side effects of PGAs and presents contemporary opinions about their role and place in the medical management of glaucoma in small animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Maślanka
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland
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Rival F, Linsart A, Isard PF, Besson C, Dulaurent T. Anterior segment morphology and morphometry in selected reptile species using optical coherence tomography. Vet Ophthalmol 2014; 18 Suppl 1:53-60. [PMID: 24837334 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To provide new and original images of the anterior segment (AS) of the eye of selected Ophidian, Chelonian, and Saurian species and to compare the AS architecture among and within these three groups. ANIMALS STUDIED 17 Saurians, 14 Ophidians, and 11 Chelonians with no concurrent systemic or eye disease were included in the study. PROCEDURE Age, weight, nose-cloaca distance (NCD), and pupil shape were collected for each animal. The AS was examined by optical coherence tomography (OCT). After gross description of the appearance of the AS, the central and peripheral corneal thickness (CCT, PCT) and anterior chamber depth (ACD) were measured using the software provided with the OCT device. The ratio CCT/ACD was then calculated for each animal. RESULTS Pupil shape was a vertical slit in all the crepuscular or nocturnal animals (except for 1 chelonian and 1 ophidian). Each group had its own particular AS architecture. Saurians had a regularly thin cornea with a flat anterior lens capsule and a deep anterior chamber. Ophidians had a thick cornea with a narrow anterior chamber due to a very anteriorly anchored spherical lens. The spectacle was difficult to identify in all ophidians except in Python molurus bivitattus in which it was more obvious. Chelonians displayed an intermediate architecture which more closely resembled the Saurian type than the Ophidian type. CONCLUSION Despite grossly similar AS architecture, the three groups of reptiles in the study demonstrated differences that are suggestive of a link between anatomical disparities and variations in environment and lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Rival
- Clinique de l'Arche, 192 Avenue de Romans, Valence, 26000, France
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