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Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024; 16:781. [PMID: 38793662 PMCID: PMC11125849 DOI: 10.3390/v16050781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans and equines are two dead-end hosts of the mosquito-borne West Nile virus (WNV) with similar susceptibility and pathogenesis. Since the introduction of WNV vaccines into equine populations of the United States of America (USA) in late 2002, there have been only sporadic cases of WNV infection in equines. These cases are generally attributed to unvaccinated and under-vaccinated equines. In contrast, due to the lack of a human WNV vaccine, WNV cases in humans have remained steadily high. An average of 115 deaths have been reported per year in the USA since the first reported case in 1999. Therefore, the characterization of protective immune responses to WNV and the identification of immune correlates of protection in vaccinated equines will provide new fundamental information about the successful development and evaluation of WNV vaccines in humans. This review discusses the comparative epidemiology, transmission, susceptibility to infection and disease, clinical manifestation and pathogenesis, and immune responses of WNV in humans and equines. Furthermore, prophylactic and therapeutic strategies that are currently available and under development are described. In addition, the successful vaccination of equines against WNV and the potential lessons for human vaccine development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Feng Li
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA; (A.N.); (L.G.E.); (D.W.)
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Dawah HA, Abdullah MA, Ahmad SK, Turner J, Azari-Hamidian S. An overview of the mosquitoes of Saudi Arabia (Diptera: Culicidae), with updated keys to the adult females. Zootaxa 2023; 5394:1-76. [PMID: 38220993 DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5394.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Despite the fact that mosquito-borne infections have considerable consequences for public health in Saudi Arabia, there is neither a thorough review of the species that occur in the country nor updated keys for the identification of the adult females. In this study, species accounts are given for 49 Saudi Arabian mosquito species, as well as Aedes albopictus (Skuse), which is not recorded in Saudi Arabia, but is medically important and is found in some countries of the Middle East and North Africa. Taxonomic notes provide additional information for certain taxa and/or aid their identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan A Dawah
- Centre for Environmental Research and Studies; Jazan University; P.O. Box 2095; Jazan; Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mohammed A Abdullah
- Department of Biology; College of Science; King Khalid University; PO Box 9004; Abha-61413; Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Syed Kamran Ahmad
- Department of Plant Protection; Faculty of Agricultural Sciences; Aligarh Muslim University; Aligarh; India.
| | - James Turner
- National Museum of Wales; Department of Natural Sciences; Entomology Section; Cardiff; CF10 3NP; UK.
| | - Shahyad Azari-Hamidian
- Research Center of Health and Environment; School of Health; Guilan University of Medical Sciences; Rasht; Iran; Department of Medical Parasitology; Mycology and Entomology; School of Medicine; Guilan University of Medical Sciences; Rasht; Iran.
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Mohammed MN, Yasmin AR, Ramanoon SZ, Noraniza MA, Ooi PT, Ain-Najwa MY, Natasha JA, Nur-Fazila SH, Arshad SS, Mohammed HO. Serological and molecular surveillance of West Nile virus in domesticated mammals of peninsular Malaysia. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1126199. [PMID: 37456951 PMCID: PMC10343450 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1126199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus is a mosquito-borne neurotropic pathogen with a wide host range that constitutes a significant risk to public and animal health. There is limited information on WNV infection in domesticated mammals in Malaysia; however, current reports indicate infections in birds, macaques, bats and pigs from Malaysia. In this study, 203 serum samples from cattle, goats, and horses were tested for the presence of anti-WNV IgG using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA). Additionally, using one-step RT-PCR, nasopharyngeal swabs were analyzed for WNV RNA from all 203 animals in this study. The WNV seroprevalence was 32.53% (27/83) at 95% CI (0.2342-0.4319) in cattle, 48.27% (14/29) at 95% CI (0.3139-0.6557) in goats and 53.84% (49/91) at 95% CI (0.4366-0.6373) in horses. Cross-reactive JEV antibodies were detected in two cattle and 34 horses. None of the cattle or goats tested positive for WNV RT-PCR. Seven horses were positive for WNV RT-PCR, a molecular prevalence of 7.69% (7/91) at 95% CI (0.0353-0.1528). This is the first reported detection of WNV in domesticated mammals of Malaysia, a significant addition to the growing evidence that WNV is being transmitted from vectors to susceptible hosts in Malaysia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Nma Mohammed
- Department of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- Department of Animal Production, School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria
| | - Abd Rahaman Yasmin
- Department of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
- Laboratory of Vaccines and Biomolecules, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Siti Zubaidah Ramanoon
- Department of Farm and Exotic Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Adzahan Noraniza
- Department of Farm and Exotic Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Peck Toung Ooi
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Yuseri Ain-Najwa
- Department of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Jafar Ali Natasha
- Department of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Saulol Hamid Nur-Fazila
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Siti Suri Arshad
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Hussni Omar Mohammed
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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Alkharsah KR, Al-Afaleq AI. Serological Evidence of West Nile Virus Infection Among Humans, Horses, and Pigeons in Saudi Arabia. Infect Drug Resist 2022; 14:5595-5601. [PMID: 34992386 PMCID: PMC8711105 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s348648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study was designed to investigate the seroprevalence of WNV antibodies in humans, horses, and pigeons in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods Blood samples were collected from 323 humans, 147 horses, and 282 pigeons from two regions, Al-Ahsa and Al-Qatif, in East of Saudi Arabia. Serum samples were tested for anti-WNV antibodies by ELISA. Results The percentage of anti-WNV antibodies in the human population was found to be 9.6% (3.1% in females and 6.5% in males). This percentage was much higher in horses, as 71.4% (105/147) of the horses had anti-WNV antibodies. However, no statistically significant difference in the anti-WNV antibody prevalence was found among horses from the two regions, Al-Ahsa (73.9%) and Al-Qatif (70.3%) (P value 0.665, 95% CI 0.37–1.82). No significant difference was found in the frequency of WNV antibodies among different age groups from humans or horses. Noticeably, 72.7% of the horses had detectable anti-WNV antibodies by the age of 1 year. In total, 53.19% (150/282) of the pigeons in the study had anti-WNV antibodies. Conclusion Our study provided the first evidence for anti-WNV antibody detection in humans and pigeons. This study further ascertained the high seroprevalence of the virus in horses as reported previously by Hemida et al 2019. Overall data indicates that WNV is endemic in Saudi Arabia. These findings suggest that more attention should be given to the diagnosis and reporting of WNV infections in human and animals and monitoring of virus circulation in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled R Alkharsah
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU), Dammam, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Adel I Al-Afaleq
- Department of Environmental Health, College of Public Health, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (IAU), Dammam, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Hafez AM, Abbas N. Insecticide resistance to insect growth regulators, avermectins, spinosyns and diamides in Culex quinquefasciatus in Saudi Arabia. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:558. [PMID: 34715900 PMCID: PMC8555291 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-05068-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Culex quinquefasciatus is not only a biting nuisance but also an important vector of fatal diseases. In Saudi Arabia, management measures to control this mosquito and thereby prevent associated disease transmission have focused on insecticides. Nevertheless, information on the resistance status of C. quinquefasciatus is insufficient, especially concerning insecticides containing novel classes of insecticides. METHODS We evaluated six insecticides belonging to four classes of insecticides (insect growth regulators [3], avermectins [1], diamides [1] and spinosyns [1]) for toxicity and resistance in eight C. quinquefasciatus populations (from Ishbiliya, Al-Masfa, Al-Masanie, Al-Washlah, Al-Nakhil, Irqah, Al-Suwaidi and Al-Ghanemiya) following World Health Organisation protocols. RESULTS Resistance status ranging from susceptibility/low resistance to high resistance, in comparison with the susceptible strain, was detected for cyromazine in the eight C. quinquefasciatus populations: Ishbiliya (resistance ratio [RR] = 3.33), Al-Masfa (RR = 4.33), Al-Masanie (RR = 3.67), Al-Washlah (RR = 2.33), Al-Nakhil (RR = 5.33), Irqah (RR = 7.00), Al-Suwaidi (RR = 21.33) and Al-Ghanemiya (RR = 16.00). All C. quinquefasciatus populations exhibited a high level of resistance to diflubenzuron (RR = 13.33-43.33), with the exception of Al-Nakhil which exhibited moderate resistance (RR = 10.00). Susceptibility/low resistance to high resistance was observed for triflumuron in the eight C. quinquefasciatus populations: Ishbiliya (RR = 0.50), Al-Ghanemiya (RR = 3.00), Al-Suwaidi (RR = 10.00), Al-Masfa (RR = 5.00), Al-Masanie (RR = 10.00), Al-Nakhil (RR = 5.00), Irqah (RR = 5.00) and Al-Washlah (RR = 15.00). Susceptibility/low resistance was assessed for abamectin, chlorantraniliprole and spinosad in all C. quinquefasciatus populations, with RR ranges of 0.25-3.50, 0.17-2.19, and 0.02-0.50, respectively. However, the population collected from Irqah showed high resistance to chlorantraniliprole (RR = 11.93). CONCLUSIONS The detection of widespread resistance to insect growth regulators in C. quinquefasciatus highlights an urgent need to establish integrated vector management strategies. Our results may facilitate the selection of potent insecticides for integrated vector management programmes for C. quinquefasciatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulwahab M Hafez
- Pesticides and Environmental Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Plant Protection, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Naeem Abbas
- Pesticides and Environmental Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Plant Protection, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia.
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West Nile virus seroprevalence and associated risk factors among horses in Egypt. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20932. [PMID: 34686730 PMCID: PMC8536702 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00449-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Determination of the seroprevalence and risk factors that are associated with West Nile virus (WNV) in horses is essential for adoption of effective prevention strategies. Our objective in this study, therefore, was to determine the seroprevalence and to identify the risk factors associated with WNV infection in the most densely horse-populated governorates in Egypt. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2018 on 930 horses, which were distributed over five governorates in the Nile delta of Egypt. The horses, which were randomly selected, were serologically tested through use of an ID screen West Nile competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect anti-WNV immunoglobulin G (IgG) and plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT; gold standard) to confirm the seropositive status of animals and to avoid cross reaction with other flavi-viruses. Four variables (geographical location, breed, sex and age) were considered in the risk analysis. Univariable and stepwise forward multivariable logistic regression methods were used for risk-factor analysis. The odds ratio (OR) was used as an approximate measure of relative risk. A total of 156 (16.8%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 14.4-19.2; P < 0.001) serum samples were found to be serologically positive for WNV. The highest seroprevalence rate was detected in horses of age ≥ 15 years (68.1%; 95% CI 49.8-72.4), stallions (26.4%; 95% CI 22.7-30.4), and those of mixed breed (21.5%; 95% CI 17.7-27.5). Horses older than 15 years were found to be at increased risk of WNV infection with OR = 4.3 (95% CI 3.0-6.2, P < 0.001) compared with horses aged under 2.5 years. Also, when all the risk factors were considered, stallions were more likely than mares to be WNV seropositive (OR = 2.4, 95% CI 1.6-3.7, P < 0.001), and of the breeds, mixed-breed (OR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.2-2.8, P = 0.005) and Arabian horses (OR = 1.9, 95% CI 1.2-2.8, P = 0.005) were more likely to be seropositive. Geographical location seemed to have no impact on the seroprevalence of exposure to WNV among these horses. Due to these findings, we strongly recommend intensive surveillance and implementation of effective control and prevention strategies against WNV, especially in stallion, mixed-breed horses with ages ≥ 15 years.
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Olarinmoye AO, Niphuis H, Verschoor E, Olugasa BO, Ishola OO, Aldosari AA, Boug A, Ogunro BN, Al-Hezaimi K. Serological Detection of Flavivirus Infections in Saudi Baboons. ECOHEALTH 2021; 18:283-287. [PMID: 34448974 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-021-01539-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
To evaluate the risk to public health from Flaviviruses in the southwest region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, we screened as sentinels, 50 commensal hamadryas baboons located at a peri-domestic site on the outskirts of Ta'if City in February 2013. Of the baboons, 12% [95% CI 5, 24], 0% [95% CI 0, 7] and 10% [95% CI 3, 22] were seropositive in a pan-Flavivirus ELISA (anti-pan-WNV 1-2, Usutu, Zika), Dengue virus 1-4 ELISA (anti-DENV 1-4) and WNV-1 PRNT, respectively, indicating Flavirus exposures of the subjects with possible risk to public health in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayodeji Oluwadare Olarinmoye
- The Department of Agriculture and Industrial Technology, School of Science and Technology, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
| | - Henk Niphuis
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Ernst Verschoor
- Department of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Babasola Oluseyi Olugasa
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Olayinka Olabisi Ishola
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Ali Abdullah Aldosari
- Department of Geography, College of Arts, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Boug
- Prince Saud Al-Faisal Wildlife Research Centre, Ta'if, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Khalid Al-Hezaimi
- Department of Endodontics and Periodontics, School of Dentistry, Riyadh Elm University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Pennati A, Apfelbeck T, Brounts S, Galipeau J. Washed Equine Platelet Extract as an Anti-Inflammatory Biologic Pharmaceutical. Tissue Eng Part A 2020; 27:582-592. [PMID: 32854583 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2020.0160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian platelets participate in the immediate tissue injury response by initiating coagulation and further promoting tissue injury mitigation and repair. The latter properties are deployed following platelet release of presynthetized morphogens, cytokines, and growth and chemotactic factors, which launch a tissue regenerative, angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory program. Several blood-derived biologic products, like platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and platelet lysate (PL), are currently on the market to allow proper healing and tissue regeneration. However, not all growth factors are released from the platelets and the final products contain plasma proteins such as albumin, fibrinogen, complement, and immunoglobulins, increasing the risks of serum sickness or allergic reaction. To address this problem, we developed a new platelet extract where equine blood platelets are concentrated, washed, and thereafter lysed by detergent Triton X-114. Distinct from PRP, this extract is devoid of albumin, fibrinogen, and immunoglobulins and is 266-fold enriched in platelet-derived growth factor content relative to PRP. Washed equine platelet extract (WEPLEX) is amenable to lyophilization without loss of biological activity. In vitro, WEPLEX significantly inhibits human and equine T cell proliferative response to phytohemagglutinin and also polarizes murine CD45+/CD11b+ peritoneal macrophages to an IL-10+ M2-like phenotype. In vivo, WEPLEX substantially improves clinical outcome of murine experimental dextran sulfate sodium colitis. We propose that equine-sourced, zoonosis-free WEPLEX may serve as an anti-inflammatory biological therapy across mammalian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Pennati
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.,University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Taylor Apfelbeck
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.,University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.,Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Sabrina Brounts
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jacques Galipeau
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.,University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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Selim A, Radwan A, Arnaout F. Seroprevalence and molecular characterization of West Nile Virus in Egypt. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 71:101473. [PMID: 32289595 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV) is a flavivirus, mosquito-borne infection and have public health importance worldwide. WNV infection have highly significant impact on animal and human health. The virus has been detected serologically in Egypt among equids. Therefore, the aim of the present study to investigate the serological situation of WNV among horse in north of Egypt and identification of WNV in vector. The serological survey was conducted on 500 serum samples that collected from horses from four governorates at north of Egypt. The infection rate was non-significant differed between four localities and the highest rate was reported in Qalyubia governorate (25.5 %) in comparison with other areas. Moreover, the WNV RNA was detected in mosquitoes and the obtained WNV sequence showed high similarity with Eg101 strain and characterized as lineage 1. The obtained findings confirm the circulation of WNV in mosquitoes and animals in Egypt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelfattah Selim
- Department of Animal Medicine (Infectious Diseases), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Egypt.
| | - Ahmed Radwan
- Department of Animal Medicine (Infectious Diseases), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Egypt
| | - Faysal Arnaout
- Department of Animal Medicine (Infectious Diseases), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Egypt
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Barba M, Fairbanks EL, Daly JM. Equine viral encephalitis: prevalence, impact, and management strategies. VETERINARY MEDICINE (AUCKLAND, N.Z.) 2019; 10:99-110. [PMID: 31497528 PMCID: PMC6689664 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s168227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Members of several different virus families cause equine viral encephalitis, the majority of which are arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) with zoonotic potential. The clinical signs caused are rarely pathognomonic; therefore, a clinical diagnosis is usually presumptive according to the geographical region. However, recent decades have seen expansion of the geographical range and emergence in new regions of numerous viral diseases. In this context, this review presents an overview of the prevalence and distribution of the main viral causes of equine encephalitis and discusses their impact and potential approaches to limit their spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Barba
- Veterinary Faculty, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
| | - Emma L Fairbanks
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, UK
| | - Janet M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, UK
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