Impact of secondary amenorrhea on cardiovascular disease risk in physically active women: a systematic review protocol

The silent pandemic of stress: impact on menstrual cycle and ovulation

In the current age of technological advancement, stress has emerged as a silent pandemic affecting individuals, especially young generations, globally. Factors such as increased competition, social pressures fueled by social media and smartphones, and a sense of diminished control in the face of modern challenges contribute to rising stress levels. In addition to the negative implications on mental well-being, stress affects physiological processes such as the menstrual cycle. Functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is a spectrum ranging ranging from regular menstrual cycles with short or insufficient luteal phases to irregular cycles, oligomenorrhea, anovulation, and complete amenorrhea, depending on how stress variably disrupts gonadotropic-releasing hormone (GnRH) drive. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea (FHA), the most severe manifestation, is a complex global neuroendocrinopathy with several serious health consequences in addition to amenorrhea and infertility. Concomitant health consequences include bone loss, endothelial dysfunction, and cardiovascular risks. The collective health burden underscores the need for clinical awareness and comprehensive treatment strategies addressing behavioral and biopsychosocial stressors that lead to chronic hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation. Despite its prevalence and numerous adverse health consequences, research on this condition remains limited, revealing a significant gap in understanding and addressing this condition. Larger and long-term follow-up studies are important to accurately assess FHA prevalence, its health consequences, intervention efficacy, and recovery outcomes.

Impact of Secondary Amenorrhea on Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Physically Active Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Exercise-associated secondary amenorrhea results in estrogen deficiency, which may lead to dysfunction in estrogen's normal cardioprotective pathways. Estrogen may be essential in a woman's endothelial adaptations to exercise. The objective of this review was to assess the association between secondary amenorrhea in physically active women and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A literature search was performed in January 2023 and updated in August 2023 of the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (EBSCOhost), Cochrane Library, Embase (Ovid), MEDLINE (Ovid), SPORTDiscus (EBSCOhost), and Scopus from inception to present with no date or language limitations. Citation chaining was done to screen for additional studies. Eight sources were searched for gray literature. Studies that compared physically active women with amenorrhea to physically active women with eumenorrhea aged 18 to 35 years with evidence of CVD, alterations to cardiovascular physiology, or CVD risks were included. Eighteen observational studies from 3 countries were included. Overall, the quality of evidence was good. A meta-analysis was performed. Physically active women with secondary amenorrhea had significantly lower estradiol, flow-mediated dilation, resting heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure and higher total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

CONCLUSIONS

Estrogen deficiency resulting from exercise-associated secondary amenorrhea in physically active women may impact cardiovascular physiology and certain CVD risk factors. The research in this area is observational; therefore, findings should be interpreted cautiously. However, as exercise-associated secondary amenorrhea is reversible and the primary prevention of CVD is important for public health, it may be important to treat secondary amenorrhea and restore estrogen levels.