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Hu Y, Cang J, Hiraishi K, Fujita T, Inoue R. The Role of TRPM4 in Cardiac Electrophysiology and Arrhythmogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11798. [PMID: 37511555 PMCID: PMC10380800 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) channel is a non-selective cation channel that activates in response to increased intracellular Ca2+ levels but does not allow Ca2+ to pass through directly. It plays a crucial role in regulating diverse cellular functions associated with intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis/dynamics. TRPM4 is widely expressed in the heart and is involved in various physiological and pathological processes therein. Specifically, it has a significant impact on the electrical activity of cardiomyocytes by depolarizing the membrane, presumably via Na+ loading. The TRPM4 channel likely contributes to the development of cardiac arrhythmias associated with specific genetic backgrounds and cardiac remodeling. This short review aims to overview what is known so far about the TRPM4 channel in cardiac electrophysiology and arrhythmogenesis, highlighting its potential as a novel therapeutic target to effectively prevent and treat cardiac arrhythmias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaopeng Hu
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Jiehui Cang
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Keizo Hiraishi
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Takayuki Fujita
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
| | - Ryuji Inoue
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
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Pharmacological Modulation and (Patho)Physiological Roles of TRPM4 Channel-Part 2: TRPM4 in Health and Disease. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 15:ph15010040. [PMID: 35056097 PMCID: PMC8779181 DOI: 10.3390/ph15010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4) is a unique member of the TRPM protein family and, similarly to TRPM5, is Ca2+ sensitive and permeable for monovalent but not divalent cations. It is widely expressed in many organs and is involved in several functions; it regulates membrane potential and Ca2+ homeostasis in both excitable and non-excitable cells. This part of the review discusses the currently available knowledge about the physiological and pathophysiological roles of TRPM4 in various tissues. These include the physiological functions of TRPM4 in the cells of the Langerhans islets of the pancreas, in various immune functions, in the regulation of vascular tone, in respiratory and other neuronal activities, in chemosensation, and in renal and cardiac physiology. TRPM4 contributes to pathological conditions such as overactive bladder, endothelial dysfunction, various types of malignant diseases and central nervous system conditions including stroke and injuries as well as in cardiac conditions such as arrhythmias, hypertrophy, and ischemia-reperfusion injuries. TRPM4 claims more and more attention and is likely to be the topic of research in the future.
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Hu Y, Kaschitza DR, Essers M, Arullampalam P, Fujita T, Abriel H, Inoue R. Pathological activation of CaMKII induces arrhythmogenicity through TRPM4 overactivation. Pflugers Arch 2021; 473:507-519. [PMID: 33392831 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-020-02507-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
TRPM4 is a Ca2+-activated nonselective cation channel involved in cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology. Based on cellular experiments and numerical simulations, the present study aimed to explore the potential arrhythmogenicity of CaMKII-mediated TRPM4 channel overactivation linked to Ca2+ dysregulation in the heart. The confocal immunofluorescence microscopy, western blot, and proximity ligation assay (PLA) in HL-1 atrial cardiomyocytes and/or TRPM4-expressing TSA201 cells suggested that TRPM4 and CaMKII proteins are closely localized. Co-expression of TRPM4 and CaMKIIδ or a FRET-based sensor Camui in HEK293 cells showed that the extent of TRPM4 channel activation was correlated with that of CaMKII activity, suggesting their functional interaction. Both expressions and interaction of the two proteins were greatly enhanced by angiotensin II treatment, which induced early afterdepolarizations (EADs) at the repolarization phase of action potentials (APs) recorded from HL-1 cells by the current clamp mode of patch clamp technique. This arrhythmic change disappeared after treatment with the TRPM4 channel blocker 9-phenanthrol or CaMKII inhibitor KN-62. In order to quantitatively assess how CaMKII modulates the gating behavior of TRPM4 channel, the ionomycin-permeabilized cell-attached recording was employed to obtain the voltage-dependent parameters such as steady-state open probability and time constants for activation/deactivation at different [Ca2+]i. Numerical simulations incorporating these kinetic data into a modified HL-1 model indicated that > 3-fold increase in TRPM4 current density induces EADs at the late repolarization phase and CaMKII inhibition (by KN-62) completely eliminates them. These results collectively suggest a novel arrhythmogenic mechanism involving excessive CaMKII activity that causes TRPM4 overactivation in the stressed heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaopeng Hu
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, 7-45-1 Nanakuma, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, 814-0180, Japan.
| | - Daniela Ross Kaschitza
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Maria Essers
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Prakash Arullampalam
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Takayuki Fujita
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, 7-45-1 Nanakuma, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, 814-0180, Japan
| | - Hugues Abriel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ryuji Inoue
- Department of Physiology, Fukuoka University School of Medicine, 7-45-1 Nanakuma, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, 814-0180, Japan.
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Inherited Cardiac Arrhythmia Syndromes: Focus on Molecular Mechanisms Underlying TRPM4 Channelopathies. Cardiovasc Ther 2020; 2020:6615038. [PMID: 33381229 PMCID: PMC7759408 DOI: 10.1155/2020/6615038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 4 (TRPM4) is a transmembrane N-glycosylated ion channel that belongs to the large family of TRP proteins. It has an equal permeability to Na+ and K+ and is activated via an increase of the intracellular calcium concentration and membrane depolarization. Due to its wide distribution, TRPM4 dysfunction has been linked with several pathophysiological processes, including inherited cardiac arrhythmias. Many pathogenic variants of the TRPM4 gene have been identified in patients with different forms of cardiac disorders such as conduction defects, Brugada syndrome, and congenital long QT syndrome. At the cellular level, these variants induce either gain- or loss-of-function of TRPM4 channels for similar clinical phenotypes. However, the molecular mechanisms associating these functional alterations to the clinical phenotypes remain poorly understood. The main objective of this article is to review the major cardiac TRPM4 channelopathies and recent advances regarding their genetic background and the underlying molecular mechanisms.
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Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to discuss evidence concerning the many roles of calcium ions, Ca2+, in cell signaling pathways that control heart function. Before considering details of these signaling pathways, the control of contraction in ventricular muscle by Ca2+ transients accompanying cardiac action potentials is first summarized, together with a discussion of how myocytes from the atrial and pacemaker regions of the heart diverge from this basic scheme. Cell signaling pathways regulate the size and timing of the Ca2+ transients in the different heart regions to influence function. The simplest Ca2+ signaling elements involve enzymes that are regulated by cytosolic Ca2+. Particularly important examples to be discussed are those that are stimulated by Ca2+, including Ca2+-calmodulin-dependent kinase (CaMKII), Ca2+ stimulated adenylyl cyclases, Ca2+ stimulated phosphatase and NO synthases. Another major aspect of Ca2+ signaling in the heart concerns actions of the Ca2+ mobilizing agents, inositol trisphosphate (IP3), cADP-ribose (cADPR) and nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate, (NAADP). Evidence concerning roles of these Ca2+ mobilizing agents in different regions of the heart is discussed in detail. The focus of the review will be on short term regulation of Ca2+ transients and contractile function, although it is recognized that Ca2+ regulation of gene expression has important long term functional consequences which will also be briefly discussed.
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Kim JC, Son MJ, Woo SH. Regulation of cardiac calcium by mechanotransduction: Role of mitochondria. Arch Biochem Biophys 2018; 659:33-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2018.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Denham NC, Pearman CM, Caldwell JL, Madders GWP, Eisner DA, Trafford AW, Dibb KM. Calcium in the Pathophysiology of Atrial Fibrillation and Heart Failure. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1380. [PMID: 30337881 PMCID: PMC6180171 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is commonly associated with heart failure. A bidirectional relationship exists between the two-AF exacerbates heart failure causing a significant increase in heart failure symptoms, admissions to hospital and cardiovascular death, while pathological remodeling of the atria as a result of heart failure increases the risk of AF. A comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiology of AF is essential if we are to break this vicious circle. In this review, the latest evidence will be presented showing a fundamental role for calcium in both the induction and maintenance of AF. After outlining atrial electrophysiology and calcium handling, the role of calcium-dependent afterdepolarizations and atrial repolarization alternans in triggering AF will be considered. The atrial response to rapid stimulation will be discussed, including the short-term protection from calcium overload in the form of calcium signaling silencing and the eventual progression to diastolic calcium leak causing afterdepolarizations and the development of an electrical substrate that perpetuates AF. The role of calcium in the bidirectional relationship between heart failure and AF will then be covered. The effects of heart failure on atrial calcium handling that promote AF will be reviewed, including effects on both atrial myocytes and the pulmonary veins, before the aspects of AF which exacerbate heart failure are discussed. Finally, the limitations of human and animal studies will be explored allowing contextualization of what are sometimes discordant results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan C. Denham
- Unit of Cardiac Physiology, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Katharine M. Dibb
- Unit of Cardiac Physiology, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Kim JC, Son MJ, Le QA, Woo SH. Role of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 in ATP-induced nuclear Ca 2+ signal and hypertrophy in atrial myocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 503:2998-3002. [PMID: 30122316 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.08.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1 (IP3R1) is expressed in atrial muscle, but not in ventricle, and they are abundant in the perinucleus. We investigated the role of IP3R1 in the regulations of local Ca2+ signal and cell size in HL-1 atrial myocytes under stimulation by IP3-generating chemical messenger, ATP. Assessment of nuclear and cytosolic Ca2+ signal using confocal Ca2+ imaging revealed that IP3 generation by ATP (1 mM) induced monophasic nuclear Ca2+ increase, followed by cytosolic Ca2+ oscillation. Genetic knock-down (KD) of IP3R1 eliminated the monophasic nuclear Ca2+ signal and slowed the cytosolic Ca2+ oscillation upon ATP exposure. Prolonged application of ATP as well as other known hypertrophic agonists (endothelin-1 and phenylephrine) increased cell size in wild-type cells, but not in IP3R1 KD cells. Our data indicate that IP3R1 mediates sustained elevation in nuclear Ca2+ level and facilitates cytosolic Ca2+ oscillation upon external ATP increase, and further suggests possible role of nuclear IP3R1 in atrial hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joon-Chul Kim
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, South Korea
| | - Min-Jeong Son
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, South Korea
| | - Qui Anh Le
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, South Korea
| | - Sun-Hee Woo
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34134, South Korea.
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Kim JC, Son MJ, Wang J, Woo SH. Regulation of cardiac Ca 2+ and ion channels by shear mechanotransduction. Arch Pharm Res 2017; 40:783-795. [PMID: 28702845 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-017-0929-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac contraction is controlled by a Ca2+ signaling sequence that includes L-type Ca2+ current-gated opening of Ca2+ release channels (ryanodine receptors) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Local Ca2+ signaling in the atrium differs from that in the ventricle because atrial myocytes lack transverse tubules and have more abundant corbular SR. Myocardium is subjected to a variety of forces with each contraction, such as stretch, shear stress, and afterload, and adapts to those mechanical stresses. These mechanical stimuli increase in heart failure, hypertension, and valvular heart diseases that are clinically implicated in atrial fibrillation and stroke. In the present review, we describe distinct responses of atrial and ventricular myocytes to shear stress and compare them with other mechanical responses in the context of local and global Ca2+ signaling and ion channel regulation. Recent evidence suggests that shear mechanotransduction in cardiac myocytes involves activation of gap junction hemichannels, purinergic signaling, and generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. Significant alterations in Ca2+ signaling and ionic currents by shear stress may be implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiac arrhythmia and failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joon-Chul Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-764, South Korea
| | - Min-Jeong Son
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-764, South Korea
| | - Jun Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-764, South Korea
| | - Sun-Hee Woo
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-764, South Korea.
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Schönleitner P, Schotten U, Antoons G. Mechanosensitivity of microdomain calcium signalling in the heart. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017. [PMID: 28648626 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In cardiac myocytes, calcium (Ca2+) signalling is tightly controlled in dedicated microdomains. At the dyad, i.e. the narrow cleft between t-tubules and junctional sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), many signalling pathways combine to control Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release during contraction. Local Ca2+ gradients also exist in regions where SR and mitochondria are in close contact to regulate energetic demands. Loss of microdomain structures, or dysregulation of local Ca2+ fluxes in cardiac disease, is often associated with oxidative stress, contractile dysfunction and arrhythmias. Ca2+ signalling at these microdomains is highly mechanosensitive. Recent work has demonstrated that increasing mechanical load triggers rapid local Ca2+ releases that are not reflected by changes in global Ca2+. Key mechanisms involve rapid mechanotransduction with reactive oxygen species or nitric oxide as primary signalling molecules targeting SR or mitochondria microdomains depending on the nature of the mechanical stimulus. This review summarizes the most recent insights in rapid Ca2+ microdomain mechanosensitivity and re-evaluates its (patho)physiological significance in the context of historical data on the macroscopic role of Ca2+ in acute force adaptation and mechanically-induced arrhythmias. We distinguish between preload and afterload mediated effects on local Ca2+ release, and highlight differences between atrial and ventricular myocytes. Finally, we provide an outlook for further investigation in chronic models of abnormal mechanics (eg post-myocardial infarction, atrial fibrillation), to identify the clinical significance of disturbed Ca2+ mechanosensitivity for arrhythmogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Schönleitner
- Dept of Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | - Uli Schotten
- Dept of Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | - Gudrun Antoons
- Dept of Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
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Proteoglycans, ion channels and cell-matrix adhesion. Biochem J 2017; 474:1965-1979. [PMID: 28546458 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cell surface proteoglycans comprise a transmembrane or membrane-associated core protein to which one or more glycosaminoglycan chains are covalently attached. They are ubiquitous receptors on nearly all animal cell surfaces. In mammals, the cell surface proteoglycans include the six glypicans, CD44, NG2 (CSPG4), neuropilin-1 and four syndecans. A single syndecan is present in invertebrates such as nematodes and insects. Uniquely, syndecans are receptors for many classes of proteins that can bind to the heparan sulphate chains present on syndecan core proteins. These range from cytokines, chemokines, growth factors and morphogens to enzymes and extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins and collagens. Extracellular interactions with other receptors, such as some integrins, are mediated by the core protein. This places syndecans at the nexus of many cellular responses to extracellular cues in development, maintenance, repair and disease. The cytoplasmic domains of syndecans, while having no intrinsic kinase activity, can nevertheless signal through binding proteins. All syndecans appear to be connected to the actin cytoskeleton and can therefore contribute to cell adhesion, notably to the ECM and migration. Recent data now suggest that syndecans can regulate stretch-activated ion channels. The structure and function of the syndecans and the ion channels are reviewed here, along with an analysis of ion channel functions in cell-matrix adhesion. This area sheds new light on the syndecans, not least since evidence suggests that this is an evolutionarily conserved relationship that is also potentially important in the progression of some common diseases where syndecans are implicated.
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Kim JC, Wang J, Son MJ, Woo SH. Shear stress enhances Ca 2+ sparks through Nox2-dependent mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation in rat ventricular myocytes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2017; 1864:1121-1131. [PMID: 28213332 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2017.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Shear stress enhances diastolic and systolic Ca2+ concentration in ventricular myocytes. Here, using confocal Ca2+ imaging in rat ventricular myocytes, we assessed the effects of shear stress (~16dyn/cm2) on the frequency of spontaneous Ca2+ sparks and explored the mechanism underlying shear-mediated Ca2+ spark regulation. The frequency of Ca2+ sparks was immediately increased by shear stress (by ~80%), and increased further (by ~150%) during prolonged exposure (20s). The 2-D size and duration of individual sparks were increased by shear stimulation. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) only partially attenuated the prolonged shear-mediated enhancement in spark frequency. Pretreatment with antioxidants significantly attenuated the short- and long-term effects of shear on spark frequency. Microtubule or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 2 (Nox2) inhibition abolished the immediate shear-induced increase in spark frequency and suppressed the effects of prolonged exposure to shear stress by ~70%. Scavenging of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial uncoupling also abolished the effect of short-term shear on spark occurrence, and markedly reduced (by ~80%) the effects of prolonged shear. Mitochondrial ROS levels increased under shear; this was eliminated by blocking Nox2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ content was increased only by prolonged shear. Our data suggest that shear stress enhances ventricular spark frequency mainly via ROS generated from mitochondria through Nox2, and that NOS and higher sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ concentrations may also contribute to the enhancement of Ca2+ sparks under shear stress. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: ECS Meeting edited by Claus Heizmann, Joachim Krebs and Jacques Haiech.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joon-Chul Kim
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, South Korea
| | - Jun Wang
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, South Korea
| | - Min-Jeong Son
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, South Korea
| | - Sun-Hee Woo
- Laboratory of Physiology, College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, South Korea.
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