Noninvasive blood perfusion measurements of an isolated rat liver and an anesthetized rat kidney

The AccuFlow sensor: a novel digital health tool to assess intrapartum blood loss at cesarean delivery

OBJECTIVES

During obstetric hemorrhage, peripheral vasoconstriction maintains heart rate and blood pressure until compensatory mechanisms are overwhelmed and patients deteriorate rapidly. Real-time perfusion measurements could quantify vasoconstriction, improving early recognition of hemorrhage and facilitating early intervention to reduce morbidity and mortality. The AccuFlow device makes rapid, non-invasive, quantitative measurements of perfusion, but has not been studied for hemorrhage detection or used in surgical settings. This study evaluated feasibility, tolerability, and preliminary efficacy of the AccuFlow for assessment of blood loss at cesarean delivery (CD).

METHODS

In this pilot study, sensors were applied to the wrist, forearm, bicep, and chest wall of 25 patients undergoing scheduled CD. Postoperatively, sensors were removed and patients rated the AccuFlow and the standard anesthesia monitoring equipment on a validated comfort rating scale for wearable computers (CRS). Blood loss was estimated by the surgical team (EBL) and calculated from change in hematocrit, weight, and height (CBL). CRS scores were compared via Wilcoxon signed ranks tests. Coefficients of correlation between sensor readings and CBL, and between EBL and CBL, were compared using Fisher's R-to-z transformation.

RESULTS

There were no safety events; no participants requested device removal. CRS ratings of the AccuFlow and the standard monitoring equipment were similar (7.2 vs. 8.8, p=0.25). Change in wrist perfusion from delivery to dressing placement was more strongly correlated with CBL than was EBL (R=-0.48 vs. R=0.087, p=0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The AccuFlow sensor is well-tolerated and shows promise in detecting intrapartum hemorrhage, though larger studies are needed.

Noninvasive and Continuous Monitoring of the Core Body Temperature through the Quantitative Measurement of Blood Perfusion Rate

Core body temperature (CBT) is one of the four vital signs that must be monitored continuously. The continuous recording of CBT is possible through invasive methods by inserting a temperature probe into specific body sites. We report a novel method to monitor CBT through the quantitative measurement of skin blood perfusion rate (ωb,skin). By monitoring the skin temperature, heat flux, and ωb,skin, the arterial blood temperature, equivalent to CBT, can be extracted. ωb,skin is quantitatively evaluated thermally via sinusoidal heating with regulated thermal penetration depth so that the blood perfusion rate is acquired only in the skin. Its quantification is significant because it indicates various physiological events including hyper- or hypothermia, tissue death, and delineation of tumors. A subject showed promising results with steady values of ωb,skin and CBT of 5.2 ± 1.05 × 10-4 s-1 and 36.51 ± 0.23 °C, respectively. For periods where the subject's actual CBT (axillary temperature) did not fall within the estimated range, the average deviation from the actual CBT was only 0.07 °C. This study aims to develop a competent methodology capable of continuously monitoring the CBT and blood perfusion rate at a distant location from the core body region for the diagnosis of a patient's health condition with wearable devices.

Emerging technology for early detection and management of postpartum hemorrhage to prevent morbidity

Despite advances in hemorrhage detection and management, postpartum hemorrhage remains the single leading cause of maternal death worldwide. Within the United States, hemorrhage is the leading cause of maternal death on the day of delivery and within the first week after delivery. Blood transfusion after hemorrhage represents a large proportion of severe maternal morbidity during and after delivery. Blood loss during delivery has historically been assessed visually by inspecting soiled pads, linens, and laparotomy sponges. These methods underestimate the volume of blood loss by as much as 40%, becoming increasingly inaccurate as blood loss increases. Young, healthy obstetrical patients compensate for blood loss via peripheral vasoconstriction, maintaining heart rate and blood pressure in a normal range until over 1 L of blood has been lost. A significant decrease in blood pressure along with marked tachycardia (>120 bpm) may not be seen until 30% to 40% of blood volume has been lost, or 2.0 to 2.6 L in a healthy term pregnant patient, after which the patient may rapidly decompensate. In resource-poor settings especially, the narrow window between the emergence of significant vital sign abnormalities and clinical decompensation may prove catastrophic. Once hemorrhage is detected, decisions regarding blood product transfusion are routinely made on the basis of inaccurate estimates of blood loss, placing patients at risk of underresuscitation (increasing the risk of hemorrhagic shock and end-organ damage) or overresuscitation (increasing the risk of transfusion reaction, fluid overload, and alloimmunization). We will review novel technologies that have emerged to assist both in the early and accurate detection of postpartum hemorrhage and in decisions regarding blood product transfusion.

In vivo noninvasive preclinical tumor hypoxia imaging methods: a review

Tumors exhibit areas of decreased oxygenation due to malformed blood vessels. This low oxygen concentration decreases the effectiveness of radiation therapy, and the resulting poor perfusion can prevent drugs from reaching areas of the tumor. Tumor hypoxia is associated with poorer prognosis and disease progression, and is therefore of interest to preclinical researchers. Although there are multiple different ways to measure tumor hypoxia and related factors, there is no standard for quantifying spatial and temporal tumor hypoxia distributions in preclinical research or in the clinic. This review compares imaging methods utilized for the purpose of assessing spatio-temporal patterns of hypoxia in the preclinical setting. Imaging methods provide varying levels of spatial and temporal resolution regarding different aspects of hypoxia, and with varying advantages and disadvantages. The choice of modality requires consideration of the specific experimental model, the nature of the required characterization and the availability of complementary modalities as well as immunohistochemistry.

Machine Perfusion of Liver Grafts With Implantable Oxygen Biosensors: Proof of Concept Study in a Rodent Model

Background

Normothermic machine perfusion (NMP) is emerging as a novel preservation strategy in liver transplantation, but the optimal methods for assessing liver grafts during this period have not been determined. The aim of this study was to investigate whether implantable oxygen biosensors can be used to monitor tissue oxygen tension in liver grafts undergoing NMP.

Methods

Implantable phosphorescence-based oxygen sensors were tested in 3 different experimental groups: (1) in vivo during laparotomy, (2) during NMP of liver grafts with an acellular perfusate (NMP-acellular), and (3) during NMP with perfusate containing red blood cells (NMP-RBC). During in vivo experiments, intrahepatic oxygen tension was measured before and after occlusion of the portal vein (PV). In NMP experiments, intrahepatic oxygen tension was measured as a function of different PV pressure settings (3 vs 5 vs 8 mm Hg) and inflow oxygen concentration (95% O₂ vs 6% O₂).

Results

In vivo, intrahepatic oxygen tension decreased significantly within 2 minutes of clamping the PV (P < 0.05). In NMP experiments, intrahepatic oxygen tension correlated directly with PV pressure when high inflow oxygen concentration (95%) was used. Intrahepatic oxygen tension was significantly higher in the NMP-RBC group compared with the NMP-acellular group for all conditions tested (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Implantable oxygen biosensors have potential utility as a tool for real-time monitoring of intrahepatic oxygen tension during NMP of liver grafts. Further investigation is required to determine how intrahepatic oxygen tension during NMP correlates with posttransplant graft function.

Modeling and Estimating Simulated Burn Depth Using the Perfusion and Thermal Resistance Probe

A new thermal perfusion probe operates by imposing a thermal event on the tissue surface and directly measuring the temperature and heat flux response of the tissue with a small sensor. The thermal event is created by convectively cooling the surface with a small group of impinging jets using room temperature air. The hypothesis of this research is that this sensor can be used to provide practical burn characterization of depth and severity by determining the thickness of nonperfused tissue. To demonstrate this capability the measurement system was tested with a phantom tissue that simulates the blood perfusion of tissue. Different thicknesses of plastic were used at the surface to mimic layers of dead tissue. A mathematical model developed by Alkhwaji et al. (2012, “New Mathematical Model to Estimate Tissue Blood Perfusion, Thermal Contact Resistance and Core Temperature,” ASME J. Biomech. Eng., 134, p. 081004) is used to determine the effective values of blood perfusion, core temperature, and thermal resistance from the thermal measurements. The analytical solutions of the Pennes bioheat equation using the Green's function method is coupled with an efficient parameter estimation procedure to minimize the error between measured and analytical heat flux. Seven different thicknesses of plastic were used along with three different flow rates of perfusate to simulate burned skin of the phantom perfusion system. The resulting values of thermal resistance are a combination of the plastic resistance and thermal contact resistance between the sensor and plastic surface. Even with the uncertainty of sensor placement on the surface, the complete set of thermal resistance measurements correlate well with the layer thickness. The values are also nearly independent of the flow rate of the perfusate, which shows that the parameter estimation can successfully separate these two parameters. These results with simulated burns show the value of this minimally invasive technique to measure the thickness of nonperfused layers. This will encourage further work with this method on actual tissue burns.

New mathematical model to estimate tissue blood perfusion, thermal contact resistance and core temperature

Analytical solutions were developed based on the Green's function method to describe heat transfer in tissue including the effects of blood perfusion. These one-dimensional transient solutions were used with a simple parameter estimation technique and experimental measurements of temperature and heat flux at the surface of simulated tissue. It was demonstrated how such surface measurements can be used during step changes in the surface thermal conditions to estimate the value of three important parameters: blood perfusion (w(b)), thermal contact resistance (R"), and core temperature of the tissue (T(core)). The new models were tested against finite-difference solutions of thermal events on the surface to show the validity of the analytical solution. Simulated data was used to demonstrate the response of the model in predicting optimal parameters from noisy temperature and heat flux measurements. Finally, the analytical model and simple parameter estimation routine were used with actual experimental data from perfusion in phantom tissue. The model was shown to provide a very good match with the data curves. This demonstrated the first time that all three of these important parameters (w(b), R", and T(core)) have simultaneously been estimated from a single set of thermal measurements at the surface of tissue.

Experimental characterization and numerical modeling of tissue electrical conductivity during pulsed electric fields for irreversible electroporation treatment planning

Irreversible electroporation is a new technique to kill cells in targeted tissue, such as tumors, through a nonthermal mechanism using electric pulses to irrecoverably disrupt the cell membrane. Treatment effects relate to the tissue electric field distribution, which can be predicted with numerical modeling for therapy planning. Pulse effects will change the cell and tissue properties through thermal and electroporation (EP)-based processes. This investigation characterizes these changes by measuring the electrical conductivity and temperature of ex vivo renal porcine tissue within a single pulse and for a 200 pulse protocol. These changes are incorporated into an equivalent circuit model for cells and tissue with a variable EP-based resistance, providing a potential method to estimate conductivity as a function of electric field and pulse length for other tissues. Finally, a numerical model using a human kidney volumetric mesh evaluated how treatment predictions vary when EP- and temperature-based electrical conductivity changes are incorporated. We conclude that significant changes in predicted outcomes will occur when the experimental results are applied to the numerical model, where the direction and degree of change varies with the electric field considered.

Non-Invasive Blood Perfusion Measurements Using a Combined Temperature and Heat Flux Surface Probe

Non-invasive blood perfusion measurement systems have been developed and tested in a phantom tissue and an animal model. The probes use a small sensor with a laminated flat thermocouple to measure the heat transfer and temperature response to an arbitrary thermal event (convective or conductive) imposed on the tissue surface. Blood perfusion and thermal contact resistance are estimated by comparing heat flux data with a mathematical model of the tissue. The perfusion probes were evaluated for repeatability and sensitivity using both a phantom tissue test stand and exposed rat liver tests. Perfusion in the phantom tissue tests was varied by controlling the flow of water into the phantom tissue test section, and the perfusion in the exposed liver tests was varied by temporarily occluding blood flow through the portal vein. The phantom tissue tests indicated that the probes can be used to detect small changes in perfusion (0.005 ml/ml/s). The probes qualitatively tracked the changes in the perfusion of the liver model due to occlusion of the portal vein.