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Tian S, Sun D, Chen F, Wang H, Li C, Yin C. Recent progress in plasma modification of 2D metal chalcogenides for electronic devices and optoelectronic devices. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:1577-1599. [PMID: 38173407 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr05618j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Two-dimensional metal chalcogenides (2D MCs) present a great opportunity for overcoming the size limitation of traditional silicon-based complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) devices. Controllable modulation compatible with CMOS processes is essential for the improvement of performance and the large-scale applications of 2D MCs. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in plasma modification of 2D MCs, including substitutional doping, defect engineering, surface charge transfer, interlayer coupling modulation, thickness control, and nano-array pattern etching in the fields of electronic devices and optoelectronic devices. Finally, challenges and outlooks for plasma modulation of 2D MCs are presented to offer valuable references for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siying Tian
- Institute of Microelectronics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19 A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Dapeng Sun
- Institute of Microelectronics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Fengling Chen
- Institute of Microelectronics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Honghao Wang
- Institute of Microelectronics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19 A Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chaobo Li
- Institute of Microelectronics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Chujun Yin
- Institute of Microelectronics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
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2
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Hole doping effect of MoS 2 via electron capture of He + ion irradiation. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23590. [PMID: 34880289 PMCID: PMC8654839 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02932-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Beyond the general purpose of noble gas ion sputtering, which is to achieve functional defect engineering of two-dimensional (2D) materials, we herein report another positive effect of low-energy (100 eV) He+ ion irradiation: converting n-type MoS2 to p-type by electron capture through the migration of the topmost S atoms. The electron capture ability via He+ ion irradiation is valid for supported bilayer MoS2; however, it is limited at supported monolayer MoS2 because the charges on the underlying substrates transfer into the monolayer under the current condition for He+ ion irradiation. Our technique provides a stable and universal method for converting n-type 2D transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) into p-type semiconductors in a controlled fashion using low-energy He+ ion irradiation.
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Bertolazzi S, Gobbi M, Zhao Y, Backes C, Samorì P. Molecular chemistry approaches for tuning the properties of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:6845-6888. [PMID: 30043037 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00169c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors, such as ultrathin layers of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), offer a unique combination of electronic, optical and mechanical properties, and hold potential to enable a host of new device applications spanning from flexible/wearable (opto)electronics to energy-harvesting and sensing technologies. A critical requirement for developing practical and reliable electronic devices based on semiconducting TMDs consists in achieving a full control over their charge-carrier polarity and doping. Inconveniently, such a challenging task cannot be accomplished by means of well-established doping techniques (e.g. ion implantation and diffusion), which unavoidably damage the 2D crystals resulting in degraded device performances. Nowadays, a number of alternatives are being investigated, including various (supra)molecular chemistry approaches relying on the combination of 2D semiconductors with electroactive donor/acceptor molecules. As yet, a large variety of molecular systems have been utilized for functionalizing 2D TMDs via both covalent and non-covalent interactions. Such research endeavours enabled not only the tuning of the charge-carrier doping but also the engineering of the optical, electronic, magnetic, thermal and sensing properties of semiconducting TMDs for specific device applications. Here, we will review the most enlightening recent advancements in experimental (supra)molecular chemistry methods for tailoring the properties of atomically-thin TMDs - in the form of substrate-supported or solution-dispersed nanosheets - and we will discuss the opportunities and the challenges towards the realization of novel hybrid materials and devices based on 2D semiconductors and molecular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Bertolazzi
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, ISIS, 8 alleé Gaspard Monge, 67000 Strasbourg, France.
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4
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Jadwiszczak J, O’Callaghan C, Zhou Y, Fox DS, Weitz E, Keane D, Cullen CP, O’Reilly I, Downing C, Shmeliov A, Maguire P, Gough JJ, McGuinness C, Ferreira MS, Bradley AL, Boland JJ, Duesberg GS, Nicolosi V, Zhang H. Oxide-mediated recovery of field-effect mobility in plasma-treated MoS 2. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2018; 4:eaao5031. [PMID: 29511736 PMCID: PMC5837433 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aao5031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Precise tunability of electronic properties of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials is a key goal of current research in this field of materials science. Chemical modification of layered transition metal dichalcogenides leads to the creation of heterostructures of low-dimensional variants of these materials. In particular, the effect of oxygen-containing plasma treatment on molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) has long been thought to be detrimental to the electrical performance of the material. We show that the mobility and conductivity of MoS2 can be precisely controlled and improved by systematic exposure to oxygen/argon plasma and characterize the material using advanced spectroscopy and microscopy. Through complementary theoretical modeling, which confirms conductivity enhancement, we infer the role of a transient 2D substoichiometric phase of molybdenum trioxide (2D-MoO x ) in modulating the electronic behavior of the material. Deduction of the beneficial role of MoO x will serve to open the field to new approaches with regard to the tunability of 2D semiconductors by their low-dimensional oxides in nano-modified heterostructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Jadwiszczak
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Colin O’Callaghan
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Yangbo Zhou
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanchang University, 999 Xuefu Road, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330031, China
| | - Daniel S. Fox
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Eamonn Weitz
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Darragh Keane
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Conor P. Cullen
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Ian O’Reilly
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Clive Downing
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Aleksey Shmeliov
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Pierce Maguire
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - John J. Gough
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Cormac McGuinness
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Mauro S. Ferreira
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - A. Louise Bradley
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - John J. Boland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Georg S. Duesberg
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Institute of Physics, EIT 2, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Universität der Bundeswehr München, Werner-Heisenberg-Weg 39, 85577 Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Valeria Nicolosi
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Hongzhou Zhang
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and BioEngineering Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Corresponding author.
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Dubey S, Lisi S, Nayak G, Herziger F, Nguyen VD, Le Quang T, Cherkez V, González C, Dappe YJ, Watanabe K, Taniguchi T, Magaud L, Mallet P, Veuillen JY, Arenal R, Marty L, Renard J, Bendiab N, Coraux J, Bouchiat V. Weakly Trapped, Charged, and Free Excitons in Single-Layer MoS 2 in the Presence of Defects, Strain, and Charged Impurities. ACS NANO 2017; 11:11206-11216. [PMID: 28992415 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b05520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Few- and single-layer MoS2 host substantial densities of defects. They are thought to influence the doping level, the crystal structure, and the binding of electron-hole pairs. We disentangle the concomitant spectroscopic expression of all three effects and identify to what extent they are intrinsic to the material or extrinsic to it, i.e., related to its local environment. We do so by using different sources of MoS2-a natural one and one prepared at high pressure and high temperature-and different substrates bringing varying amounts of charged impurities and by separating the contributions of internal strain and doping in Raman spectra. Photoluminescence unveils various optically active excitonic complexes. We discover a defect-bound state having a low binding energy of 20 meV that does not appear sensitive to strain and doping, unlike charged excitons. Conversely, the defect does not significantly dope or strain MoS2. Scanning tunneling microscopy and density functional theory simulations point to substitutional atoms, presumably individual nitrogen atoms at the sulfur site. Our work shows the way to a systematic understanding of the effect of external and internal fields on the optical properties of two-dimensional materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudipta Dubey
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Simone Lisi
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Goutham Nayak
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Felix Herziger
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Van-Dung Nguyen
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Toai Le Quang
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Vladimir Cherkez
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - César González
- SPEC, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA Saclay , 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
- Departamento de Física Teórica de la Materia Condensada and Condensed Matter Physics Center (IFIMAC), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid , E-28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Yannick J Dappe
- SPEC, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA Saclay , 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Kenji Watanabe
- National Institute for Materials Science , Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan
| | | | - Laurence Magaud
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Pierre Mallet
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Jean-Yves Veuillen
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Raul Arenal
- Laboratorio de Microscopiías Avanzadas, Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragón, Universidad de Zaragoza , 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
- ARAID Foundation , 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Laëtitia Marty
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Julien Renard
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Nedjma Bendiab
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Johann Coraux
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Vincent Bouchiat
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel , 38000 Grenoble, France
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Bertolazzi S, Bonacchi S, Nan G, Pershin A, Beljonne D, Samorì P. Engineering Chemically Active Defects in Monolayer MoS 2 Transistors via Ion-Beam Irradiation and Their Healing via Vapor Deposition of Alkanethiols. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1606760. [PMID: 28247435 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201606760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Irradiation of 2D sheets of transition metal dichalcogenides with ion beams has emerged as an effective approach to engineer chemically active defects in 2D materials. In this context, argon-ion bombardment has been utilized to introduce sulfur vacancies in monolayer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2 ). However, a detailed understanding of the effects of generated defects on the functional properties of 2D MoS2 is still lacking. In this work, the correlation between critical electronic device parameters and the density of sulfur vacancies is systematically investigated through the fabrication and characterization of back-gated monolayer MoS2 field-effect transistors (FETs) exposed to a variable fluence of low-energy argon ions. The electrical properties of pristine and ion-irradiated FETs can be largely improved/recovered by exposing the devices to vapors of short linear thiolated molecules. Such a solvent-free chemical treatment-carried out strictly under inert atmosphere-rules out secondary healing effects induced by oxygen or oxygen-containing molecules. The results provide a guideline to design monolayer MoS2 optoelectronic devices with a controlled density of sulfur vacancies, which can be further exploited to introduce ad hoc molecular functionalities by means of thiol chemistry approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Bertolazzi
- University of Strasbourg, CNRS, ISIS UMR 7006, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Sara Bonacchi
- University of Strasbourg, CNRS, ISIS UMR 7006, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Guangjun Nan
- Laboratory for Chemistry of Novel Materials, Université de Mons, Place du Parc 20, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - Anton Pershin
- Laboratory for Chemistry of Novel Materials, Université de Mons, Place du Parc 20, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - David Beljonne
- Laboratory for Chemistry of Novel Materials, Université de Mons, Place du Parc 20, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - Paolo Samorì
- University of Strasbourg, CNRS, ISIS UMR 7006, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
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7
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Addou R, Colombo L, Wallace RM. Surface Defects on Natural MoS2. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:11921-11929. [PMID: 25980312 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b01778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are being considered for a variety of electronic and optoelectronic devices such as beyond complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) switches, light-emitting diodes, solar cells, as well as sensors, among others. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is the most studied of the TMDs in part because of its availability in the natural or geological form. The performance of most devices is strongly affected by the intrinsic defects in geological MoS2. Indeed, most sources of current transition metal dichalcogenides have defects, including many impurities. The variability in the electrical properties of MoS2 across the surface of the same crystal has been shown to be correlated with local variations in stoichiometry as well as metallic-like and structural defects. The presence of impurities has also been suggested to play a role in determining the Fermi level in MoS2. The main focus of this work is to highlight a number of intrinsic defects detected on natural, exfoliated MoS2 crystals from two different sources that have been often used in previous reports for device fabrication. We employed room temperature scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and spectroscopy (STS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS), as well as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to study the pristine surface of MoS2(0001) immediately after exfoliation. ICPMS used to measure the concentration of impurity elements can in part explain the local contrast behavior observed in STM images. This work highlights that the high concentration of surface defects and impurity atoms may explain the variability observed in the electrical and physical characteristics of MoS2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafik Addou
- †Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
| | - Luigi Colombo
- ‡Texas Instruments Incorporated, 13121 TI Boulevard, MS-365, Dallas, Texas 75243, United States
| | - Robert M Wallace
- †Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 West Campbell Road, Richardson, Texas 75080, United States
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Kim IS, Sangwan VK, Jariwala D, Wood JD, Park S, Chen KS, Shi F, Ruiz-Zepeda F, Ponce A, Jose-Yacaman M, Dravid VP, Marks TJ, Hersam MC, Lauhon LJ. Influence of stoichiometry on the optical and electrical properties of chemical vapor deposition derived MoS2. ACS NANO 2014; 8:10551-8. [PMID: 25223821 PMCID: PMC4212723 DOI: 10.1021/nn503988x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Ultrathin transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) of Mo and W show great potential for digital electronics and optoelectronic applications. Whereas early studies were limited to mechanically exfoliated flakes, the large-area synthesis of 2D TMDCs has now been realized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) based on a sulfurization reaction. The optoelectronic properties of CVD grown monolayer MoS2 have been intensively investigated, but the influence of stoichiometry on the electrical and optical properties has been largely overlooked. Here we systematically vary the stoichiometry of monolayer MoS2 during CVD via controlled sulfurization and investigate the associated changes in photoluminescence and electrical properties. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is employed to measure relative variations in stoichiometry and the persistence of MoOx species. As MoS2-δ is reduced (increasing δ), the field-effect mobility of monolayer transistors increases while the photoluminescence yield becomes nonuniform. Devices fabricated from monolayers with the lowest sulfur content have negligible hysteresis and a threshold voltage of ∼ 0 V. We conclude that the electrical and optical properties of monolayer MoS2 crystals can be tuned via stoichiometry engineering to meet the requirements of various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- In Soo Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Vinod K. Sangwan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Deep Jariwala
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Joshua D. Wood
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Spencer Park
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kan-Sheng Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Fengyuan Shi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Francisco Ruiz-Zepeda
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78249, United States
| | - Arturo Ponce
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78249, United States
| | - Miguel Jose-Yacaman
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78249, United States
| | - Vinayak P. Dravid
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- International Institute of Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Tobin J. Marks
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Mark C. Hersam
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Address correspondence to ,
| | - Lincoln J. Lauhon
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Address correspondence to ,
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