Nanorod-based flow estimation using a high-frame-rate photoacoustic imaging system

Photoacoustic imaging of cells in a three-dimensional microenvironment

Imaging live cells in a three-dimensional (3D) culture system yields more accurate information and spatial visualization of the interplay of cells and the surrounding matrix components compared to using a two-dimensional (2D) cell culture system. However, the thickness of 3D cultures results in a high degree of scattering that makes it difficult for the light to penetrate deeply to allow clear optical imaging. Photoacoustic (PA) imaging is a powerful imaging modality that relies on a PA effect generated when light is absorbed by exogenous contrast agents or endogenous molecules in a medium. It combines a high optical contrast with a high acoustic spatiotemporal resolution, allowing the noninvasive visualization of 3D cellular scaffolds at considerable depths with a high resolution and no image distortion. Moreover, advances in targeted contrast agents have also made PA imaging capable of molecular and cellular characterization for use in preclinical personalized diagnostics or PA imaging-guided therapeutics. Here we review the applications and challenges of PA imaging in a 3D cellular microenvironment. Potential future developments of PA imaging in preclinical applications are also discussed.

Review of photoacoustic flow imaging: its current state and its promises

Flow imaging is an important method for quantification in many medical imaging modalities, with applications ranging from estimating wall shear rate to detecting angiogenesis. Modalities like ultrasound and optical coherence tomography both offer flow imaging capabilities, but suffer from low contrast to red blood cells and are sensitive to clutter artefacts. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is a relatively new field, with a recent interest in flow imaging. The recent enthusiasm for PA flow imaging is due to its intrinsic contrast to haemoglobin, which offers a new spin on existing methods of flow imaging, and some unique approaches in addition. This review article will delve into the research on photoacoustic flow imaging, explain the principles behind the many techniques and comment on their individual advantages and disadvantages.

Ultrasound-guided photoacoustic imaging: current state and future development

Photoacoustic imaging, frequently coregistered with ultrasonic imaging, can provide functional and cellular/molecular information about tissue within the anatomical landmarks of an imaged region. This review details the fundamentals of photoacoustic imaging and its most promising imaging applications. Particular attention is paid to photoacoustic imaging's relationship with ultrasound, focusing on distinct differences and similarities between the two modalities and highlighting the mutual benefit of using both concurrently in certain preclinical and clinical applications. Much like its origins as an imaging modality were intertwined with ultrasonic imaging (namely, its acoustic transducers and hardware), the future of photoacoustic imaging-particularly in the clinical arena-similarly depends on ultrasound and its time-tested ability to provide real-time visualization of soft tissue.

Advances in noninvasive functional imaging of bone

The demand for functional imaging in clinical medicine is comprehensive. Although the gold standard for the functional imaging of human bones in clinical settings is still radionuclide-based imaging modalities, nonionizing noninvasive imaging technology in small animals has greatly advanced in recent decades, especially the diffuse optical imaging to which Britton Chance made tremendous contributions. The evolution of imaging probes, instruments, and computation has facilitated exploration in the complicated biomedical research field by allowing longitudinal observation of molecular events in live cells and animals. These research-imaging tools are being used for clinical applications in various specialties, such as oncology, neuroscience, and dermatology. The Bone, a deeply located mineralized tissue, presents a challenge for noninvasive functional imaging in humans. Using nanoparticles (NP) with multiple favorable properties as bioimaging probes has provided orthopedics an opportunity to benefit from these noninvasive bone-imaging techniques. This review highlights the historical evolution of radionuclide-based imaging, computed tomography, positron emission tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging, diffuse optics-enabled in vivo technologies, vibrational spectroscopic imaging, and a greater potential for using NPs for biomedical imaging.

Three-dimensional optoacoustic imaging as a new noninvasive technique to study long-term biodistribution of optical contrast agents in small animal models

We used a 3-D optoacoustic (OA) tomography system to create maps of optical absorbance of mice tissues contrasted with gold nanorods (GNRs). Nude mice were scanned before and after injection of GNRs at time periods varying from 1 to 192 h. Synthesized GNRs were purified from hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide and coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) to obtain GNR-PEG complexes suitable for in vivo applications. Intravenous administration of purified GNR-PEG complexes resulted in enhanced OA contrast of internal organs and blood vessels compared to the same mouse before injection of the contrast agent. Maximum enhancement of the OA images was observed 24 to 48 h postinjection, followed by a slow clearance trend for the remaining part of the studied period (eight days). We demonstrate that OA imaging with two laser wavelengths can be used for noninvasive, long-term studies of biological distribution of contrast agents.

Three-dimensional optoacoustic imaging as a new noninvasive technique to study long-term biodistribution of optical contrast agents in small animal models

We used a 3-D optoacoustic (OA) tomography system to create maps of optical absorbance of mice tissues contrasted with gold nanorods (GNRs). Nude mice were scanned before and after injection of GNRs at time periods varying from 1 to 192 h. Synthesized GNRs were purified from hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide and coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) to obtain GNR-PEG complexes suitable for in vivo applications. Intravenous administration of purified GNR-PEG complexes resulted in enhanced OA contrast of internal organs and blood vessels compared to the same mouse before injection of the contrast agent. Maximum enhancement of the OA images was observed 24 to 48 h postinjection, followed by a slow clearance trend for the remaining part of the studied period (eight days). We demonstrate that OA imaging with two laser wavelengths can be used for noninvasive, long-term studies of biological distribution of contrast agents.

Biocompatible Gold Nanorod Conjugates for Preclinical Biomedical Research

Gold nanorods with a peak absorption wavelength of 760 nm were prepared using a seed-mediated method. A novel protocol has been developed to replace hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide on the surface of the nanorods with 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid and metoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-thiol, and the monoclonal antibody HER2. The physical chemistry properties of the conjugates were monitored through optical and zeta-potential measurements to confirm surface chemistry changes. The efficiency of the modifications was quantified through measurement of the average number of antibodies per gold nanorod. The conjugates were investigated for different cells lines: BT-474, MCF7, MCF10, MDCK, and fibroblast. The results show successful cell accumulation of the gold nanorod HER2 conjugates in cells with HER2 overexpression. Incubation of the complexes in heparinized mouse blood demonstrated the low aggregation of the metallic particles through stability of the spectral properties, as verified by UV/VIS spectrometry. Cytotoxicity analysis with LDH release and MTT assay confirms strong targeting and retention of functional activity of the antibody after their conjugation with gold nanorods. Silver staining confirms efficient specific binding to BT-474 cells even in cases where the nanorod complexes were incubated in heparinized mouse blood. This is confirmed through in vivo studies where, following intravenous injection of gold nanorod complexes, silver staining reveals noticeably higher rates of specific binding in mouse tumors than in healthy liver.The conjugates are reproducible, have strong molecular targeting capabilities, have long term stability in vivo and can be used in pre-clinical applications. The conjugates can also be used for molecular and optoacoustic imaging, quantitative sensing of biological substrates, and photothermal therapy.

Ultrafast photoacoustic imaging and its application to real-time 3D imaging with improved focusing

The restricted temporal resolution ofphotoacoustic imaging due to limited frame rates often prohibits its applications in areas such as real-time 3D imaging. This paper presents an ultrasound/photoacoustic multimodality imaging system that provides an ultrafast frame rate and consists of an ultrasound transducer array with plane wave excitation and a laser with pulse repetition frequency up to 2000 Hz. Its application to real-time 3D photoacoustic imaging is demonstrated and a synthetic-aperture focusing technique is applied to improve the elevational focusing quality of the mechanically-scanned 1D array. A 3D frame rate of 12 Hz in a volume covering a 19.2 mm x 19.2 mm scanning surface is demonstrated.

Nanoparticles as contrast agents for in-vivo bioimaging: current status and future perspectives

Nanoparticle-based contrast agents are quickly becoming valuable and potentially transformative tools for enhancing medical diagnostics for a wide range of in-vivo imaging modalities. Compared with conventional molecular-scale contrast agents, nanoparticles (NPs) promise improved abilities for in-vivo detection and potentially enhanced targeting efficiencies through longer engineered circulation times, designed clearance pathways, and multimeric binding capacities. However, NP contrast agents are not without issues. Difficulties in minimizing batch-to-batch variations and problems with identifying and characterizing key physicochemical properties that define the in-vivo fate and transport of NPs are significant barriers to the introduction of new NP materials as clinical contrast agents. This manuscript reviews the development and application of nanoparticles and their future potential to advance current and emerging clinical bioimaging techniques. A focus is placed on the application of solid, phase-separated materials, for example metals and metal oxides, and their specific application as contrast agents for in-vivo near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT), ultrasound (US), and photoacoustic imaging (PAI). Clinical and preclinical applications of NPs are identified for a broad spectrum of imaging applications, with commentaries on the future promise of these materials. Emerging technologies, for example multifunctional and theranostic NPs, and their potential for clinical advances are also discussed.

Real-time, contrast enhanced photoacoustic imaging of cancer in a mouse window chamber

A clinical ultrasound scanner and 14 MHz linear array collected real-time photoacoustic images (PAI) during an injection of gold nanorods (GNRs) near the region of a mature PC-3 prostate tumor in mice implanted with a skin flap window chamber. Three dimensional spectroscopic PAI (690-900 nm) was also performed to investigate absorption changes near the tumor and enhance specific detection of GNRs. Whereas GNRs improved PAI contrast (+18 dB), the photoacoustic spectrum was consistent with the elevated near infrared absorption of GNRs. The versatile imaging platform potentially accelerates development of photoacoustic contrast agents and drug delivery for cancer imaging and therapy.

Photoacoustic imaging velocimetry for flow-field measurement

We present the photoacoustic imaging velocimetry (PAIV) method for flow-field measurement based on a linear transducer array. The PAIV method is realized by using a Q-switched pulsed laser, a linear transducer array, a parallel data-acquisition equipment and dynamic focusing reconstruction. Tracers used to track liquid flow field were real-timely detected, two-dimensional (2-D) flow visualization was successfully reached, and flow parameters were acquired by measuring the movement of the tracer. Experimental results revealed that the PAIV method would be developed into 3-D imaging velocimetry for flow-field measurement, and potentially applied to research the security and targeting efficiency of optical nano-material probes.

Properties and applications of colloidal nonspherical noble metal nanoparticles

Nanoparticles of noble metals belong to the most extensively studied colloidal systems in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Due to continuing progress in the synthesis of nanoparticles with controlled morphologies, the exploration of unique morphology-dependent properties has gained momentum. Anisotropic features in nonspherical nanoparticles make them ideal candidates for enhanced chemical, catalytic, and local field related applications. Nonspherical plasmon resonant nanoparticles offer favorable properties for their use as analytical tools, or as diagnostic and therapeutic agents. This Review highlights morphology-dependent properties of nonspherical noble metal nanoparticles with a focus on localized surface plasmon resonance and local field enhancement, as well as their applications in various fields including Raman spectroscopy, fluorescence enhancement, analytics and sensing, photothermal therapy, (bio-)diagnostics, and imaging.

Enhanced photoacoustic stability of gold nanorods by silica matrix confinement

Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) has garnered much attention for its high contrast and excellent spatial resolution of perfused tissues. Gold nanorods (GNRs) have been employed to further enhance the imaging contrast of PAT. However, the photon fluences typically needed for PA wave induction often also result in GNR shape changes that significantly reduce the efficiency of acoustic wave generation. In this work, we propose, synthesize, and evaluate amorphous silica-coated gold nanorods (GNR-Si) in an effort to improve contrast agent stability and ameliorate efficiency loss during photoacoustic (PA) wave induction. TEM and optical absorption spectra measurements of GNR and GNR-Si show that encasing GNRs within amorphous silica provides substantial protection of nanorod conformation from thermal deformation. PA signals generated by GNR-Si demonstrate considerably greater resistance to degradation of signal intensity with repetitive pulsing than do uncoated GNRs, thereby enabling much longer, high-contrast imaging sessions than previously possible. The prolongation of high-contrast imaging, and biocompatibility and easy surface functionalization for targeting ligands afforded by amorphous silica, suggest GNR-Si to be potentially significant for the clinical translation of PAT.

Fibro-C-Index: comprehensive, morphology-based quantification of liver fibrosis using second harmonic generation and two-photon microscopy

We develop a standardized, fully automated, quantification system for liver fibrosis assessment using second harmonic generation microscopy and a morphology-based quantification algorithm. Liver fibrosis is associated with an abnormal increase in collagen as a result of chronic liver diseases. Histopathological scoring is the most commonly used method for liver fibrosis assessment, where a liver biopsy is stained and scored by experienced pathologists. Due to the intrinsic limited sensitivity and operator-dependent variations, there exist high inter- and intraobserver discrepancies. We validate our quantification system, Fibro-C-Index, with a comprehensive animal study and demonstrate its potential application in clinical diagnosis to reduce inter- and intraobserver discrepancies.

Molecular Imaging with Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Nanoparticle-based molecular imaging has emerged as an interdisciplinary field which involves physics, chemistry, engineering, biology, and medicine. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have unique properties which make them suitable for applications in a variety of imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance, near-infrared fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, photoacoustic tomography, and radionuclide-based imaging. In this review, we will summarize the current state-of-the-art of SWCNTs in molecular imaging applications. Multifunctionality is the key advantage of nanoparticles over traditional approaches. Targeting ligands, imaging labels, therapeutic drugs, and many other agents can all be integrated into the nanoparticle to allow for targeted molecular imaging and molecular therapy by encompassing many biological and biophysical barriers. A multifunctional, SWCNT-based nanoplatform holds great potential for clinical applications in the future.

Gold nanorods as contrast agents for biological imaging: optical properties, surface conjugation and photothermal effects

Gold nanorods (NRs) have plasmon-resonant absorption and scattering in the near-infrared (NIR) region, making them attractive probes for in vitro and in vivo imaging. In the cellular environment, NRs can provide scattering contrast for darkfield microscopy, or emit a strong two-photon luminescence due to plasmon-enhanced two-photon absorption. NRs have also been employed in biomedical imaging modalities such as optical coherence tomography or photoacoustic tomography. Careful control over surface chemistry enhances the capacity of NRs as biological imaging agents by enabling cell-specific targeting, and by increasing their dispersion stability and circulation lifetimes. NRs can also efficiently convert optical energy into heat, and inflict localized damage to tumor cells. Laser-induced heating of NRs can disrupt cell membrane integrity and homeostasis, resulting in Ca(2+) influx and the depolymerization of the intracellular actin network. The combination of plasmon-resonant optical properties, intense local photothermal effects and robust surface chemistry render gold NRs as promising theragnostic agents.

Four-dimensional photoacoustic imaging of moving targets

Photoacoustic imaging provides optical contrast with improved tissue penetration and spatial resolution compared to pure optical techniques. Three-dimensional photoacoustic imaging is particularly advantageous for visualizing non-planar light absorbing structures, such as blood vessels, internal organs or tumours. We have developed a fast 3-D photoacoustic imaging system for small animal research based on a sparse array of ultrasonic detectors and iterative image reconstruction. The system can acquire 3-D images with a single laser-shot at a frame rate of 10 Hz. To demonstrate the imaging capabilities we have constructed phantoms made of a scanning point source and a rotating line object and imaged them at a rate of 10 frames per second. The resulting 4-D photoacoustic images depicted well the motion of each target. Comparison of the perceived motion in the images with the known velocity of the target showed good agreement. To our knowledge, this is the first report of single-shot high frame-rate 3-D photoacoustic imaging system. With further developments, this system could bring to bear its inherent speed for applications in small animal research, such as motion tracking of tumour outline during respiration, and rapid monitoring of contrast agent kinetics.

Subband photoacoustic imaging for contrast improvement

Contrast in photoacoustic imaging is primarily determined by optical absorption. This paper proposes a subband imaging method to further enhance the image contrast. The method is based on media with different absorptions generating acoustic waves with different frequency contents. Generally, assuming all other conditions remain the same, a high-absorption medium generates acoustic waves with higher frequency components, and hence the imaging contrast can be enhanced by appropriate selection of the spectral subbands. This study employed both finite-difference, time-domain-based simulations and phantom imaging. The numerical results show that the peak frequencies of the signals for objects with absorption coefficients of 1 and 100 cmM(-1) were 2.4 and 7.8 MHz, respectively. Imaging an agar-based phantom further demonstrated that the contrast between two objects with absorption coefficients of 5.01 and 41.75 cm(-1) can be improved by 4-10 dB when the frequency band was changed from 0-7 to 7-14 MHz. Finally, a method to further enhance the contrast based on optimal weighting is also presented. The proposed method is of particular interest in photoacoustic molecular imaging.