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Shi X, Cao C, Zhang Z, Tian J, Hu Z. Radiopharmaceutical and Eu 3+ doped gadolinium oxide nanoparticles mediated triple-excited fluorescence imaging and image-guided surgery. J Nanobiotechnology 2021; 19:212. [PMID: 34271928 PMCID: PMC8283963 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-021-00920-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) is a novel optical imaging technique that has been applied in clinic using various radionuclides and radiopharmaceuticals. However, clinical application of CLI has been limited by weak optical signal and restricted tissue penetration depth. Various fluorescent probes have been combined with radiopharmaceuticals for improved imaging performances. However, as most of these probes only interact with Cerenkov luminescence (CL), the low photon fluence of CL greatly restricted it's interaction with fluorescent probes for in vivo imaging. Therefore, it is important to develop probes that can effectively convert energy beyond CL such as β and γ to the low energy optical signals. In this study, a Eu3+ doped gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3:Eu) was synthesized and combined with radiopharmaceuticals to achieve a red-shifted optical spectrum with less tissue scattering and enhanced optical signal intensity in this study. The interaction between Gd2O3:Eu and radiopharmaceutical were investigated using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG). The ex vivo optical signal intensity of the mixture of Gd2O3:Eu and 18F-FDG reached 369 times as high as that of CLI using 18F-FDG alone. To achieve improved biocompatibility, the Gd2O3:Eu nanoparticles were then modified with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and the resulted nanoprobe PVA modified Gd2O3:Eu (Gd2O3:Eu@PVA) was applied in intraoperative tumor imaging. Compared with 18F-FDG alone, intraoperative administration of Gd2O3:Eu@PVA and 18F-FDG combination achieved a much higher tumor-to-normal tissue ratio (TNR, 10.24 ± 2.24 vs. 1.87 ± 0.73, P = 0.0030). The use of Gd2O3:Eu@PVA and 18F-FDG also assisted intraoperative detection of tumors that were omitted by preoperative positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Further experiment of image-guided surgery demonstrated feasibility of image-guided tumor resection using Gd2O3:Eu@PVA and 18F-FDG. In summary, Gd2O3:Eu can achieve significantly optimized imaging property when combined with 18F-FDG in intraoperative tumor imaging and image-guided tumor resection surgery. It is expected that the development of the Gd2O3:Eu nanoparticle will promote investigation and application of novel nanoparticles that can interact with radiopharmaceuticals for improved imaging properties. This work highlighted the impact of the nanoprobe that can be excited by radiopharmaceuticals emitting CL, β, and γ radiation for precisely imaging of tumor and intraoperatively guide tumor resection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojing Shi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Caiguang Cao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zeyu Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, School of Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Tian
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, School of Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenhua Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- School of Artificial Intelligence, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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2
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Concilio SC, Russell SJ, Peng KW. A brief review of reporter gene imaging in oncolytic virotherapy and gene therapy. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2021; 21:98-109. [PMID: 33981826 PMCID: PMC8065251 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2021.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Reporter gene imaging (RGI) can accelerate development timelines for gene and viral therapies by facilitating rapid and noninvasive in vivo studies to determine the biodistribution, magnitude, and durability of viral gene expression and/or virus infection. Functional molecular imaging systems used for this purpose can be divided broadly into deep-tissue and optical modalities. Deep-tissue modalities, which can be used in animals of any size as well as in human subjects, encompass single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and functional/molecular magnetic resonance imaging (f/mMRI). Optical modalities encompass fluorescence, bioluminescence, Cerenkov luminescence, and photoacoustic imaging and are suitable only for small animal imaging. Here we discuss the mechanisms of action and relative merits of currently available reporter gene systems, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of deep tissue versus optical imaging systems and the hardware/reagents that are used for data capture and processing. In light of recent technological advances, falling costs of imaging instruments, better availability of novel radioactive and optical tracers, and a growing realization that RGI can give invaluable insights across the entire in vivo translational spectrum, the approach is becoming increasingly essential to facilitate the competitive development of new virus- and gene-based drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kah-Whye Peng
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Pirovano G, Roberts S, Kossatz S, Reiner T. Optical Imaging Modalities: Principles and Applications in Preclinical Research and Clinical Settings. J Nucl Med 2020; 61:1419-1427. [PMID: 32764124 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.119.238279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
With the ability to noninvasively image and monitor molecular processes within tumors, molecular imaging represents a fundamental tool for cancer scientists. In the current review, we describe emergent optical technologies for molecular imaging. We aim to provide the reader with an overview of the fundamental principles on which each imaging strategy is based, to introduce established and future applications, and to provide a rationale for selecting optical technologies for molecular imaging depending on disease location, biology, and anatomy. To accelerate clinical translation of imaging techniques, we also describe examples of practical applications in patients. Elevating these techniques into standard-of-care tools will transform patient stratification, disease monitoring, and response evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Pirovano
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Sheryl Roberts
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Susanne Kossatz
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Reiner
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York .,Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York; and.,Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
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4
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Optical imaging of produced light in water during irradiation of gamma photons lower energy than the Cerenkov-light threshold. Appl Radiat Isot 2020; 157:109037. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2020.109037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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5
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Hirano Y, Yamamoto S. Estimation of the fractions of luminescence of water at higher energy than Cerenkov-light threshold for various types of radiation. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2019; 24:1-9. [PMID: 31218874 PMCID: PMC6977019 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.24.6.066005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Although the luminescence of water at a lower energy than the Cerenkov-light (CL) threshold has been found for various types of radiation, the fractions of the luminescence of water to the total produced light have not been obvious for radiations at a higher energy than the CL threshold because it is difficult to separate these two types of light. Thus, we used a Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the fractions of the luminescence of water for various types of radiation at a higher energy than the CL threshold to confirm the major component of the produced light. After we confirmed that the estimated light production of the luminescence of water could adequately simulate the experimental results, we calculated the produced light photons of this luminescence and the CL from water for protons (170 MeV), carbon ions (330 MeV/n), high-energy x-ray (6 MV) from a linear accelerator (LINAC), high-energy electrons (9 MeV) from LINAC, positrons (F-18, C-11, O-15, and N-13), and high-energy gamma photon radionuclides (Co-60). For protons, the major fraction of the produced light was the luminescence of water in addition to the CL from the prompt gamma photons produced by the nuclear interactions. For carbon ions, the major fraction of the produced light was the luminescence of water and the CL produced by the secondary electrons in addition to the prompt gamma photons produced by the nuclear interactions. For high-energy x-ray and electrons from LINAC, the fractions of luminescence of water were ∼0.1 % to 0.2%. The fractions of luminescence of water for positrons were 0.2% to 1.5% and that for Co-60 was 0.4%. We conclude that the major fractions of light produced from x-ray and electrons from LINAC, positron radionuclides, and the Co-60 source are CL, with fractions of the luminescence of water from <0.1 % to 1.5%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Hirano
- Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Department of Radiological and Medical Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Seiichi Yamamoto
- Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Department of Radiological and Medical Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
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Practical Guidelines for Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging with Clinically Relevant Isotopes. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1790:197-208. [PMID: 29858793 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7860-1_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) is a relatively new imaging modality that utilizes conventional optical imaging instrumentation to detect Cerenkov radiation derived from standard and often clinically approved radiotracers. Its research versatility, low cost, and ease of use have increased its popularity within the molecular imaging community and at institutions that are interested in conducting radiotracer-based molecular imaging research, but that lack the necessary resources and infrastructure. Here, we provide a description of the materials and procedures necessary to conduct a Cerenkov luminescence imaging experiment using a variety of imaging instrumentation, radionuclides, and animal models.
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7
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Liu M, Zheng S, Zhang X, Guo H, Shi X, Kang X, Qu Y, Hu Z, Tian J. Cerenkov luminescence imaging on evaluation of early response to chemotherapy of drug-resistant gastric cancer. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2018; 14:205-213. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2017] [Revised: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Luminescence Imaging of Water During Irradiation of Beta Particles With Energy Lower Than Cerenkov-Light Threshold. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON RADIATION AND PLASMA MEDICAL SCIENCES 2017. [DOI: 10.1109/trpms.2017.2710080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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9
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Ciarrocchi E, Belcari N. Cerenkov luminescence imaging: physics principles and potential applications in biomedical sciences. EJNMMI Phys 2017; 4:14. [PMID: 28283990 PMCID: PMC5346099 DOI: 10.1186/s40658-017-0181-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) is a novel imaging modality to study charged particles with optical methods by detecting the Cerenkov luminescence produced in tissue. This paper first describes the physical processes that govern the production and transport in tissue of Cerenkov luminescence. The detectors used for CLI and their most relevant specifications to optimize the acquisition of the Cerenkov signal are then presented, and CLI is compared with the other optical imaging modalities sharing the same data acquisition and processing methods. Finally, the scientific work related to CLI and the applications for which CLI has been proposed are reviewed. The paper ends with some considerations about further perspectives for this novel imaging modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Ciarrocchi
- Department of Physics "E. Fermi", University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy. .,INFN, section of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
| | - Nicola Belcari
- Department of Physics "E. Fermi", University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,INFN, section of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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10
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Hu Z, Qu Y, Wang K, Zhang X, Zha J, Song T, Bao C, Liu H, Wang Z, Wang J, Liu Z, Liu H, Tian J. In vivo nanoparticle-mediated radiopharmaceutical-excited fluorescence molecular imaging. Nat Commun 2015; 6:7560. [PMID: 26123615 PMCID: PMC4491820 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms8560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerenkov luminescence imaging utilizes visible photons emitted from radiopharmaceuticals to achieve in vivo optical molecular-derived signals. Since Cerenkov radiation is weak, non-optimum for tissue penetration and continuous regardless of biological interactions, it is challenging to detect this signal with a diagnostic dose. Therefore, it is challenging to achieve useful activated optical imaging for the acquisition of direct molecular information. Here we introduce a novel imaging strategy, which converts γ and Cerenkov radiation from radioisotopes into fluorescence through europium oxide nanoparticles. After a series of imaging studies, we demonstrate that this approach provides strong optical signals with high signal-to-background ratios, an ideal tissue penetration spectrum and activatable imaging ability. In comparison with present imaging techniques, it detects tumour lesions with low radioactive tracer uptake or small tumour lesions more effectively. We believe it will facilitate the development of nuclear and optical molecular imaging for new, highly sensitive imaging applications. Insufficient imaging sensitivity can make it challenging to assess early stage tumour lesions in vivo. Here, the authors present the radiopharmaceutical-excited fluorescence imaging technique that can detect tumour lesions less than 2 mm in size in living mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenhua Hu
- 1] Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China [2] Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Yawei Qu
- Department of Gastroenterology, General Hospital of Chinese People's Armed Police Forces, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Kun Wang
- 1] Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China [2] Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xiaojun Zhang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100853 China
| | - Jiali Zha
- Department of Gastroenterology, General Hospital of Chinese People's Armed Police Forces, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Tianming Song
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Chengpeng Bao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Haixiao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zhongliang Wang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an 710071, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Zhongyu Liu
- Anal-colorectal Surgery Institute, No. 150 Central Hospital of PLA, Luoyang 471031, China
| | - Haifeng Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, General Hospital of Chinese People's Armed Police Forces, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Jie Tian
- 1] Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China [2] Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Beijing 100190, China [3] The State Key Laboratory of Management and Control for Complex Systems, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
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11
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Yamamoto S, Toshito T, Fujii K, Morishita Y, Okumura S, Komori M. High resolution Cerenkov light imaging of induced positron distribution in proton therapy. Med Phys 2015; 41:111913. [PMID: 25370646 DOI: 10.1118/1.4898592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE In proton therapy, imaging of the positron distribution produced by fragmentation during or soon after proton irradiation is a useful method to monitor the proton range. Although positron emission tomography (PET) is typically used for this imaging, its spatial resolution is limited. Cerenkov light imaging is a new molecular imaging technology that detects the visible photons that are produced from high-speed electrons using a high sensitivity optical camera. Because its inherent spatial resolution is much higher than PET, the authors can measure more precise information of the proton-induced positron distribution with Cerenkov light imaging technology. For this purpose, they conducted Cerenkov light imaging of induced positron distribution in proton therapy. METHODS First, the authors evaluated the spatial resolution of our Cerenkov light imaging system with a (22)Na point source for the actual imaging setup. Then the transparent acrylic phantoms (100 × 100 × 100 mm(3)) were irradiated with two different proton energies using a spot scanning proton therapy system. Cerenkov light imaging of each phantom was conducted using a high sensitivity electron multiplied charge coupled device (EM-CCD) camera. RESULTS The Cerenkov light's spatial resolution for the setup was 0.76 ± 0.6 mm FWHM. They obtained high resolution Cerenkov light images of the positron distributions in the phantoms for two different proton energies and made fused images of the reference images and the Cerenkov light images. The depths of the positron distribution in the phantoms from the Cerenkov light images were almost identical to the simulation results. The decay curves derived from the region-of-interests (ROIs) set on the Cerenkov light images revealed that Cerenkov light images can be used for estimating the half-life of the radionuclide components of positrons. CONCLUSIONS High resolution Cerenkov light imaging of proton-induced positron distribution was possible. The authors conclude that Cerenkov light imaging of proton-induced positron is promising for proton therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seiichi Yamamoto
- Radiological and Medical Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Toshito
- Department of Proton Therapy Physics, Nagoya Proton Therapy Center, Nagoya City West Medical Center, Aichi 462-8508, Japan
| | - Kento Fujii
- Radiological and Medical Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan
| | - Yuki Morishita
- Radiological and Medical Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan
| | - Satoshi Okumura
- Radiological and Medical Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan
| | - Masataka Komori
- Radiological and Medical Laboratory Sciences, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan
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Carpenter CM, Ma X, Liu H, Sun C, Pratx G, Wang J, Gambhir SS, Xing L, Cheng Z. Cerenkov luminescence endoscopy: improved molecular sensitivity with β--emitting radiotracers. J Nucl Med 2014; 55:1905-9. [PMID: 25300598 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.114.139105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Cerenkov luminescence endoscopy (CLE) is an optical technique that captures the Cerenkov photons emitted from highly energetic moving charged particles (β(+) or β(-)) and can be used to monitor the distribution of many clinically available radioactive probes. A main limitation of CLE is its limited sensitivity to small concentrations of radiotracer, especially when used with a light guide. We investigated the improvement in the sensitivity of CLE brought about by using a β(-) radiotracer that improved Cerenkov signal due to both higher β-particle energy and lower γ noise in the imaging optics because of the lack of positron annihilation. METHODS The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of (90)Y was compared with that of (18)F in both phantoms and small-animal tumor models. Sensitivity and noise characteristics were demonstrated using vials of activity both at the surface and beneath 1 cm of tissue. Rodent U87MG glioma xenograft models were imaged with radiotracers bound to arginine-glycine-aspartate (RGD) peptides to determine the SNR. RESULTS γ noise from (18)F was demonstrated by both an observed blurring across the field of view and a more pronounced fall-off with distance. A decreased γ background and increased energy of the β particles resulted in a 207-fold improvement in the sensitivity of (90)Y compared with (18)F in phantoms. (90)Y-bound RGD peptide produced a higher tumor-to-background SNR than (18)F in a mouse model. CONCLUSION The use of (90)Y for Cerenkov endoscopic imaging enabled superior results compared with an (18)F radiotracer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin M Carpenter
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Xiaowei Ma
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California; and Department of Nuclear Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hongguang Liu
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California; and
| | - Conroy Sun
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Guillem Pratx
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Sanjiv S Gambhir
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California; and
| | - Lei Xing
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Zhen Cheng
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California; and
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Yamamoto S, Hamamura F, Watabe T, Ikeda H, Kanai Y, Watabe H, Kato K, Ogata Y, Hatazawa J. Development of a PET/Cerenkov-light hybrid imaging system. Med Phys 2014; 41:092504. [DOI: 10.1118/1.4893535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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14
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Ultrahigh-resolution Cerenkov-light imaging system for positron radionuclides: potential applications and limitations. Ann Nucl Med 2014; 28:961-9. [PMID: 25103137 PMCID: PMC4483184 DOI: 10.1007/s12149-014-0892-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Objective Cerenkov-light imaging provides inherently high resolution because the light is emitted near the positron radionuclide. However, the magnitude for the high spatial resolution of Cerenkov-light imaging is unclear. Its potential molecular imaging applications also remain unclear. We developed an ultrahigh-resolution Cerenkov-light imaging system, measured its spatial resolution, and explored its applications to molecular imaging research. Methods Our Cerenkov-light imaging system consists of a high-sensitivity charged-coupled device camera (Hamamatsu Photonics ORCA2-ER) and a bright lens (Xenon 0.95/25). An extension ring was inserted between them to magnify the subject. A ~100-μm-diameter 22Na point source was made and imaged by the system. For applications of Cerenkov-light imaging, we conducted 18F-FDG administered in vivo, ex vivo whole brain, and sliced brain imaging of rats. Results We obtained spatial resolution of ~220 μm for a 22Na point source with our developed imaging system. The 18F-FDG rat head images showed high light intensity in the eyes for the Cerenkov-light images, although there was no accumulation in these parts in the PET images. The sliced rat brain showed much higher spatial resolution for the Cerenkov-light images compared with CdWO4 scintillator-based autoradiography, although some contrast decrease was observed for them. Conclusion Even though the Cerenkov-light images showed ultrahigh resolution of ~220 μm, their distribution and contrast were sometimes different from the actual positron accumulation in the subjects. Care must be taken when evaluating positron distribution from Cerenkov-light images. However, the ultrahigh resolution of Cerenkov-light imaging will be useful for transparent subjects including phantom studies.
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Qin C, Cheng K, Chen K, Hu X, Liu Y, Lan X, Zhang Y, Liu H, Xu Y, Bu L, Su X, Zhu X, Meng S, Cheng Z. Tyrosinase as a multifunctional reporter gene for Photoacoustic/MRI/PET triple modality molecular imaging. Sci Rep 2014; 3:1490. [PMID: 23508226 PMCID: PMC3603217 DOI: 10.1038/srep01490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Development of reporter genes for multimodality molecular imaging is highly important. In contrast to the conventional strategies which have focused on fusing several reporter genes together to serve as multimodal reporters, human tyrosinase (TYR)--the key enzyme in melanin production--was evaluated in this study as a stand-alone reporter gene for in vitro and in vivo photoacoustic imaging (PAI), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). Human breast cancer cells MCF-7 transfected with a plasmid that encodes TYR (named as MCF-7-TYR) and non-transfected MCF-7 cells were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Melanin targeted N-(2-(diethylamino)ethyl)-18F-5-fluoropicolinamide was used as a PET reporter probe. In vivo PAI/MRI/PET imaging studies showed that MCF-7-TYR tumors achieved significant higher signals and tumor-to-background contrasts than those of MCF-7 tumor. Our study demonstrates that TYR gene can be utilized as a multifunctional reporter gene for PAI/MRI/PET both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxia Qin
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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Natarajan A, Habte F, Liu H, Sathirachinda A, Hu X, Cheng Z, Nagamine CM, Gambhir SS. Evaluation of 89Zr-rituximab tracer by Cerenkov luminescence imaging and correlation with PET in a humanized transgenic mouse model to image NHL. Mol Imaging Biol 2014; 15:468-75. [PMID: 23471750 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-013-0624-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This research aimed to study the use of Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) using 89Zr-rituximab positron emission tomography (PET) tracer with a humanized transgenic mouse model that expresses human CD20 and the correlation of CLI with PET. PROCEDURES Zr-rituximab (2.6 MBq) was tail vein-injected into transgenic mice that express the human CD20 on their B cells (huCD20TM). One group (n=3) received 2 mg/kg pre-dose (blocking) of cold rituximab 2 h prior to tracer; a second group (n=3) had no pre-dose (non-blocking). CLI was performed using a cooled charge-coupled device optical imager. We also performed PET imaging and ex vivo studies in order to confirm the in vivo CLI results. At each time point (4, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h), two groups of mice were imaged in vivo and ex vivo with CLI and PET, and at 96 h, organs were measured by gamma counter. RESULTS huCD20 transgenic mice injected with 89Zr-rituximab demonstrated a high-contrast CLI image compared to mice blocked with a cold dose. At various time points of 4-96 h post-radiotracer injection, the in vivo CLI signal intensity showed specific uptake in the spleen where B cells reside and, hence, the huCD20 biomarker is present at very high levels. The time-activity curve of dose decay-corrected CLI intensity and percent injected dose per gram of tissue of PET uptake in the spleen were increased over the time period (4-96 h). At 96 h, the 89Zr-rituximab uptake ratio (non-blocking vs blocking) counted (mean±standard deviation) for the spleen was 1.5±0.6 for CLI and 1.9±0.3 for PET. Furthermore, spleen uptake measurements (non-blocking and blocking of all time points) of CLI vs PET showed good correlation (R2=0.85 and slope=0.576), which also confirmed the corresponding correlations parameter value (R2=0.834 and slope=0.47) obtained for ex vivo measurements. CONCLUSIONS CLI and PET of huCD20 transgenic mice injected with 89Zr-rituximab demonstrated that the tracer was able to target huCD20-expressing B cells. The in vivo and ex vivo tracer uptake corresponding to the CLI radiance intensity from the spleen is in good agreement with PET. In this report, we have validated the use of CLI with PET for NHL imaging in huCD20TM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arutselvan Natarajan
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology, Stanford University, James H. Clark Center, 318 Campus Drive, E153, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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Hafezi W, Hoerr V. In vivo visualization of encephalitic lesions in herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infected mice by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Methods Mol Biol 2013; 1064:253-65. [PMID: 23996263 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-601-6_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is one of the most severe viral infections affecting the temporal lobes of the brain. Despite the improvements in diagnosis and antiviral drug treatment, one third of all patients fail to respond to therapy or subsequently suffer neurological relapse and develop long term neurological damage. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is among the appropriate noninvasive tools for early diagnosis of viral central nervous system (CNS) infections. In this chapter we introduce a mouse model for HSE and describe a MRI protocol to characterize the pathogenesis of HSE over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wali Hafezi
- Institute of Medical Microbiology Clinical Virology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
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Xu Y, Liu H, Chang E, Jiang H, Cheng Z. Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI) for cancer therapy monitoring. J Vis Exp 2012. [PMID: 23183774 DOI: 10.3791/4341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In molecular imaging, positron emission tomography (PET) and optical imaging (OI) are two of the most important and thus most widely used modalities. PET is characterized by its excellent sensitivity and quantification ability while OI is notable for non-radiation, relative low cost, short scanning time, high throughput, and wide availability to basic researchers. However, both modalities have their shortcomings as well. PET suffers from poor spatial resolution and high cost, while OI is mostly limited to preclinical applications because of its limited tissue penetration along with prominent scattering optical signals through the thickness of living tissues. Recently a bridge between PET and OI has emerged with the discovery of Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI). CLI is a new imaging modality that harnesses Cerenkov Radiation (CR) to image radionuclides with OI instruments. Russian Nobel laureate Alekseyevich Cerenkov and his colleagues originally discovered CR in 1934. It is a form of electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle travels at a superluminal speed in a dielectric medium. The charged particle, whether positron or electron, perturbs the electromagnetic field of the medium by displacing the electrons in its atoms. After passing of the disruption photons are emitted as the displaced electrons return to the ground state. For instance, one (18)F decay was estimated to produce an average of 3 photons in water. Since its emergence, CLI has been investigated for its use in a variety of preclinical applications including in vivo tumor imaging, reporter gene imaging, radiotracer development, multimodality imaging, among others. The most important reason why CLI has enjoyed much success so far is that this new technology takes advantage of the low cost and wide availability of OI to image radionuclides, which used to be imaged only by more expensive and less available nuclear imaging modalities such as PET. Here, we present the method of using CLI to monitor cancer drug therapy. Our group has recently investigated this new application and validated its feasibility by a proof-of-concept study. We demonstrated that CLI and PET exhibited excellent correlations across different tumor xenografts and imaging probes. This is consistent with the overarching principle of CR that CLI essentially visualizes the same radionuclides as PET. We selected Bevacizumab (Avastin; Genentech/Roche) as our therapeutic agent because it is a well-known angiogenesis inhibitor. Maturation of this technology in the near future can be envisioned to have a significant impact on preclinical drug development, screening, as well as therapy monitoring of patients receiving treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingding Xu
- Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program Canary Cancer at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, USA
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Liu H, Carpenter CM, Jiang H, Pratx G, Sun C, Buchin MP, Gambhir SS, Xing L, Cheng Z. Intraoperative imaging of tumors using Cerenkov luminescence endoscopy: a feasibility experimental study. J Nucl Med 2012; 53:1579-84. [PMID: 22904353 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.111.098541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) is an emerging new molecular imaging modality that is relatively inexpensive, easy to use, and has high throughput. CLI can image clinically available PET and SPECT probes using optical instrumentation. Cerenkov luminescence endoscopy (CLE) is one of the most intriguing applications that promise potential clinical translation. We developed a prototype customized fiberscopic Cerenkov imaging system to investigate the potential in guiding minimally invasive surgical resection. METHODS All experiments were performed in a dark chamber. Cerenkov luminescence from (18)F-FDG samples containing decaying radioactivity was transmitted through an optical fiber bundle and imaged by an intensified charge-coupled device camera. Phantoms filled with (18)F-FDG were used to assess the imaging spatial resolution. Finally, mice bearing subcutaneous C6 glioma cells were injected intravenously with (18)F-FDG to determine the feasibility of in vivo imaging. The tumor tissues were exposed, and CLI was performed on the mouse before and after surgical removal of the tumor using the fiber-based imaging system and compared with a commercial optical imaging system. RESULTS The sensitivity of this particular setup was approximately 45 kBq (1.21 μCi)/300 μL. The 3 smallest sets of cylindric holes in a commercial SPECT phantom were identifiable via this system, demonstrating that the system has a resolution better than 1.2 mm. Finally, the in vivo tumor imaging study demonstrated the feasibility of using CLI to guide the resection of tumor tissues. CONCLUSION This proof-of-concept study explored the feasibility of using fiber-based CLE for the detection of tumor tissue in vivo for guided surgery. With further improvements of the imaging sensitivity and spatial resolution of the current system, CLE may have a significant application in the clinical setting in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongguang Liu
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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Thorek DLJ, Robertson R, Bacchus WA, Hahn J, Rothberg J, Beattie BJ, Grimm J. Cerenkov imaging - a new modality for molecular imaging. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING 2012; 2:163-173. [PMID: 23133811 PMCID: PMC3477724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/25/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) is an emerging hybrid modality that utilizes the light emission from many commonly used medical isotopes. Cerenkov radiation (CR) is produced when charged particles travel through a dielectric medium faster than the speed of light in that medium. First described in detail nearly 100 years ago, CR has only recently applied for biomedical imaging purposes. The modality is of considerable interest as it enables the use of widespread luminescence imaging equipment to visualize clinical diagnostic (all PET radioisotopes) and many therapeutic radionuclides. The amount of light detected in CLI applications is significantly lower than other that in other optical imaging techniques such as bioluminescence and fluorescence. However, significant advantages include the use of approved radiotracers and lack of an incident light source, resulting in high signal to background ratios. As well, multiple subjects may be imaged concurrently (up to 5 in common bioluminescent equipment), conferring both cost and time benefits. This review summarizes the field of Cerenkov luminescence imaging to date. Applications of CLI discussed include intraoperative radionuclide-guided surgery, monitoring of therapeutic efficacy, tomographic optical imaging capabilities, and the ability to perform multiplexed imaging using fluorophores excited by the Cerenkov radiation. While technical challenges still exist, Cerenkov imaging has materialized as an important molecular imaging modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel LJ Thorek
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer CenterNew York, New York
| | - Robbie Robertson
- Millennium Pharmaceuticals, The Takeda Company, Biomedical Imaging GroupCambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Wassifa A Bacchus
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City College of New York, City University of New York160 Convent Avenue, New York, New York
| | - Jaeseung Hahn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City College of New York, City University of New York160 Convent Avenue, New York, New York
| | - Julie Rothberg
- Program in Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer CenterNew York, New York
| | - Bradley J Beattie
- Medical Physics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Jan Grimm
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer CenterNew York, New York
- Program in Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer CenterNew York, New York
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Xu Y, Chang E, Liu H, Jiang H, Gambhir SS, Cheng Z. Proof-of-concept study of monitoring cancer drug therapy with cerenkov luminescence imaging. J Nucl Med 2012; 53:312-317. [PMID: 22241909 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.111.094623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Cerenkov luminescence imaging (CLI) has emerged as a less expensive, easier-to-use, and higher-throughput alternative to other nuclear imaging modalities such as PET. It is expected that CLI will find many applications in biomedical research such as cancer detection, probe development, drug screening, and therapy monitoring. In this study, we explored the possibility of using CLI to monitor drug efficacy by comparisons against PET. To assess the performance of both modalities in therapy monitoring, 2 murine tumor models (large cell lung cancer cell line H460 and prostate cancer cell line PC3) were given bevacizumab versus vehicle treatments. Two common radiotracers, 3'-deoxy-3'-(18)F-fluorothymidine ((18)F-FLT) and (18)F-FDG, were used to monitor bevacizumab treatment efficacy. METHODS One group of mice (n = 6) was implanted with H460 xenografts bilaterally in the shoulder region, divided into treatment and control groups (n = 3 each), injected with (18)F-FLT, and imaged with PET immediately followed by CLI. The other group of mice (n = 6) was implanted with PC3 xenografts in the same locations, divided into treatment and control groups (n = 3 each), injected with (18)F-FDG, and imaged by the same modalities. Bevacizumab treatment was performed by 2 injections of 20 mg/kg at days 0 and 2. RESULTS On (18)F-FLT scans, both CLI and PET revealed significantly decreased signals from H460 xenografts in treated mice from pretreatment to day 3. Moderately increased to unchanged signals were observed in untreated mice. On (18)F-FDG scans, both CLI and PET showed relatively unchanged signals from PC3 tumors in both treated and control groups. Quantifications of tumor signals of Cerenkov luminescence and PET images showed that the 2 modalities had excellent correlations (R(2) > 0.88 across all study groups). CONCLUSION CLI and PET exhibit excellent correlations across different tumor xenografts and radiotracers. This is the first study, to our knowledge, demonstrating the use of CLI for monitoring cancer treatment. The findings warrant further exploration and optimization of CLI as an alternative to PET in preclinical therapeutic monitoring and drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingding Xu
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Edwin Chang
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Hongguang Liu
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Han Jiang
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Sanjiv Sam Gambhir
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Zhen Cheng
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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Xu Y, Liu H, Cheng Z. Harnessing the power of radionuclides for optical imaging: Cerenkov luminescence imaging. J Nucl Med 2011; 52:2009-18. [PMID: 22080446 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.111.092965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past several years, nuclear imaging modalities such as PET and SPECT have received much attention because they have been instrumental not only in preclinical cancer research but also in nuclear medicine. Yet nuclear imaging is limited by high instrumentation cost and subsequently low availability to basic researchers. Cerenkov radiation, a relativistic physical phenomenon that was discovered 70 years ago, has recently become an intriguing subject of study in molecular imaging because of its potential in augmenting nuclear imaging, particularly in preclinical small-animal studies. The intrinsic capability of radionuclides emitting luminescent light from decay is promising because of the possibility of bridging nuclear imaging with optical imaging-a modality that is much less expensive, is easier to use, and has higher throughput than its nuclear counterpart. Thus, with the maturation of this novel imaging technology using Cerenkov radiation, which is termed Cerenkov luminescence imaging, it is foreseeable that advances in both nuclear imaging and preclinical research involving radioisotopes will be significantly accelerated in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingding Xu
- Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Department of Radiology and Bio-X Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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Zhong J, Tian J, Yang X, Qin C. Whole-body Cerenkov luminescence tomography with the finite element SP(3) method. Ann Biomed Eng 2011; 39:1728-35. [PMID: 21301961 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-011-0261-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Generation of an accurate Cerenkov luminescence imaging model is a current issue of nuclear tomography with optical techniques. The article takes a pro-active approach toward whole-body Cerenkov luminescence tomography. The finite element framework employs the equation of radiative transfer via the third-order simplified spherical harmonics approximation to model Cerenkov photon propagation in a small animal. After this forward model is performed on a digital mouse with optical property heterogeneity and compared with the Monte Carlo method, we investigated the whole body reconstruction algorithm along a regularization path via coordinate descent. The endpoint of the follow-up study is the in vivo application, which provides three-dimensional biodistribution of the radiotracer uptake in the mouse from measured partial boundary currents. The combination of the forward and inverse model with elastic-net penalties is not only validated by numerical simulation, but it also effectively demonstrates in vivo imaging in small animals. Our exact reconstruction method enables optical molecular imaging to best utilize Cerenkov radiation emission from the decay of medical isotopes in tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghong Zhong
- Medical Image Processing Group, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian Dist., Beijing, 100190, People's Republic of China
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