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Han J, Dong H, Zhu T, Wei Q, Wang Y, Wang Y, Lv Y, Mu H, Huang S, Zeng K, Xu J, Ding J. Biochemical hallmarks-targeting antineoplastic nanotherapeutics. Bioact Mater 2024; 36:427-454. [PMID: 39044728 PMCID: PMC11263727 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Tumor microenvironments (TMEs) have received increasing attention in recent years as they play pivotal roles in tumorigenesis, progression, metastases, and resistance to the traditional modalities of cancer therapy like chemotherapy. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, effective antineoplastic nanotherapeutics targeting the aberrant hallmarks of TMEs have been proposed. The appropriate design and fabrication endow nanomedicines with the abilities for active targeting, TMEs-responsiveness, and optimization of physicochemical properties of tumors, thereby overcoming transport barriers and significantly improving antineoplastic therapeutic benefits. This review begins with the origins and characteristics of TMEs and discusses the latest strategies for modulating the TMEs by focusing on the regulation of biochemical microenvironments, such as tumor acidosis, hypoxia, and dysregulated metabolism. Finally, this review summarizes the challenges in the development of smart anti-cancer nanotherapeutics for TME modulation and examines the promising strategies for combination therapies with traditional treatments for further clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Han
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - He Dong
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Tianyi Zhu
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Qi Wei
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 5625 Renmin Street, Changchun, 130022, PR China
| | - Yongheng Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Yun Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Yu Lv
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Haoran Mu
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Shandeng Huang
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Ke Zeng
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Jing Xu
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Bone Tumor Institution, 100 Haining Street, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Jianxun Ding
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 5625 Renmin Street, Changchun, 130022, PR China
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Ding J, Ding X, Liao W, Lu Z. Red blood cell-derived materials for cancer therapy: Construction, distribution, and applications. Mater Today Bio 2024; 24:100913. [PMID: 38188647 PMCID: PMC10767221 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 12/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer has become an increasingly important public health issue owing to its high morbidity and mortality rates. Although traditional treatment methods are relatively effective, they have limitations such as highly toxic side effects, easy drug resistance, and high individual variability. Meanwhile, emerging therapies remain limited, and their actual anti-tumor effects need to be improved. Nanotechnology has received considerable attention for its development and application. In particular, artificial nanocarriers have emerged as a crucial approach for tumor therapy. However, certain deficiencies persist, including immunogenicity, permeability, targeting, and biocompatibility. The application of erythrocyte-derived materials will help overcome the above problems and enhance therapeutic effects. Erythrocyte-derived materials can be acquired via the application of physical and chemical techniques from natural erythrocyte membranes, or through the integration of these membranes with synthetic inner core materials using cell membrane biomimetic technology. Their natural properties such as biocompatibility and long circulation time make them an ideal choice for drug delivery or nanoparticle biocoating. Thus, red blood cell-derived materials are widely used in the field of biomedicine. However, further studies are required to evaluate their efficacy, in vivo metabolism, preparation, design, and clinical translation. Based on the latest research reports, this review summarizes the biology, synthesis, characteristics, and distribution of red blood cell-derived materials. Furthermore, we provide a reference for further research and clinical transformation by comprehensively discussing the applications and technical challenges faced by red blood cell-derived materials in the treatment of malignant tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghua Ding
- Department of Hematology & Oncology, Clinical Medical College/Affiliated Hospital of Jiujiang University, Jiujiang, Jiangxi, 332005, China
- Jiujiang Clinical Precision Medicine Research Center, Jiujiang, Jiangxi, 332005, China
| | - Xinjing Ding
- Oncology of Department, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 332000, China
| | - Weifang Liao
- Jiujiang Clinical Precision Medicine Research Center, Jiujiang, Jiangxi, 332005, China
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Clinical Medical College/Affiliated Hospital of Jiujiang University, Jiujiang, Jiangxi, 332005, China
| | - Zhihui Lu
- Oncology of Department, First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, 332000, China
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Rubinoff I, Kuranov RV, Fang R, Ghassabi Z, Wang Y, Beckmann L, Miller DA, Wollstein G, Ishikawa H, Schuman JS, Zhang HF. Adaptive spectroscopic visible-light optical coherence tomography for clinical retinal oximetry. COMMUNICATIONS MEDICINE 2023; 3:57. [PMID: 37095177 PMCID: PMC10126115 DOI: 10.1038/s43856-023-00288-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Retinal oxygen saturation (sO2) provides essential information about the eye's response to pathological changes that can result in vision loss. Visible-light optical coherence tomography (vis-OCT) is a noninvasive tool that has the potential to measure retinal sO2 in a clinical setting. However, its reliability is currently limited by unwanted signals referred to as spectral contaminants (SCs), and a comprehensive strategy to isolate true oxygen-dependent signals from SCs in vis-OCT is lacking. METHODS We develop an adaptive spectroscopic vis-OCT (ADS-vis-OCT) technique that can adaptively remove SCs and accurately measure sO2 under the unique conditions of each vessel. We also validate the accuracy of ADS-vis-OCT using ex vivo blood phantoms and assess its repeatability in the retina of healthy volunteers. RESULTS In ex vivo blood phantoms, ADS-vis-OCT agrees with a blood gas machine with only a 1% bias in samples with sO2 ranging from 0% to 100%. In the human retina, the root mean squared error between sO2 values in major arteries measured by ADS-vis-OCT and a pulse oximeter is 2.1% across 18 research participants. Additionally, the standard deviations of repeated ADS-vis-OCT measurements of sO2 values in smaller arteries and veins are 2.5% and 2.3%, respectively. Non-adaptive methods do not achieve comparable repeatabilities from healthy volunteers. CONCLUSIONS ADS-vis-OCT effectively removes SCs from human images, yielding accurate and repeatable sO2 measurements in retinal arteries and veins with varying diameters. This work could have important implications for the clinical use of vis-OCT to manage eye diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Rubinoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Roman V Kuranov
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Opticent Inc., Evanston, IL, 60201, USA
| | - Raymond Fang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Zeinab Ghassabi
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University, New York, NY, 10017, USA
| | - Yuanbo Wang
- Currently with Department of Ophthalmology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Lisa Beckmann
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - David A Miller
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Gadi Wollstein
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University, New York, NY, 10017, USA
| | - Hiroshi Ishikawa
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University, New York, NY, 10017, USA
- Currently with Department of Ophthalmology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Joel S Schuman
- Department of Ophthalmology, New York University, New York, NY, 10017, USA
| | - Hao F Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
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Taylor-Williams M, Spicer G, Bale G, Bohndiek SE. Noninvasive hemoglobin sensing and imaging: optical tools for disease diagnosis. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2022; 27:JBO-220074VR. [PMID: 35922891 PMCID: PMC9346606 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.27.8.080901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Measurement and imaging of hemoglobin oxygenation are used extensively in the detection and diagnosis of disease; however, the applied instruments vary widely in their depth of imaging, spatiotemporal resolution, sensitivity, accuracy, complexity, physical size, and cost. The wide variation in available instrumentation can make it challenging for end users to select the appropriate tools for their application and to understand the relative limitations of different methods. AIM We aim to provide a systematic overview of the field of hemoglobin imaging and sensing. APPROACH We reviewed the sensing and imaging methods used to analyze hemoglobin oxygenation, including pulse oximetry, spectral reflectance imaging, diffuse optical imaging, spectroscopic optical coherence tomography, photoacoustic imaging, and diffuse correlation spectroscopy. RESULTS We compared and contrasted the ability of different methods to determine hemoglobin biomarkers such as oxygenation while considering factors that influence their practical application. CONCLUSIONS We highlight key limitations in the current state-of-the-art and make suggestions for routes to advance the clinical use and interpretation of hemoglobin oxygenation information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Taylor-Williams
- University of Cambridge, Department of Physics, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
- University of Cambridge, Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
| | - Graham Spicer
- University of Cambridge, Department of Physics, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
- University of Cambridge, Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
| | - Gemma Bale
- University of Cambridge, Department of Physics, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
- University of Cambridge, Electrical Division, Department of Engineering, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah E Bohndiek
- University of Cambridge, Department of Physics, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
- University of Cambridge, Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom, United Kingdom
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Conclusions About Osmotically Inactive Volume and Osmotic Fragility from a Detailed Erythrocyte Model. J Theor Biol 2022; 539:110982. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Qin S, Xu Y, Li H, Chen H, Yuan Z. Recent advances in in situ oxygen-generating and oxygen-replenishing strategies for hypoxic-enhanced photodynamic therapy. Biomater Sci 2021; 10:51-84. [PMID: 34882762 DOI: 10.1039/d1bm00317h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for an estimated 10 million deaths by 2020. Over the decades, various strategies for tumor therapy have been developed and evaluated. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has attracted increasing attention due to its unique characteristics, including low systemic toxicity and minimally invasive nature. Despite the excellent clinical promise of PDT, hypoxia is still the Achilles' heel associated with its oxygen-dependent nature related to increased tumor proliferation, angiogenesis, and distant metastases. Moreover, PDT-mediated oxygen consumption further exacerbates the hypoxia condition, which will eventually lead to the poor effect of drug treatment and resistance and irreversible tumor metastasis, even limiting its effective application in the treatment of hypoxic tumors. Hypoxia, with increased oxygen consumption, may occur in acute and chronic hypoxia conditions in developing tumors. Tumor cells farther away from the capillaries have much lower oxygen levels than cells in adjacent areas. However, it is difficult to change the tumor's deep hypoxia state through different ways to reduce the tumor tissue's oxygen consumption. Therefore, it will become more difficult to cure malignant tumors completely. In recent years, numerous investigations have focused on improving PDT therapy's efficacy by providing molecular oxygen directly or indirectly to tumor tissues. In this review, different molecular oxygen supplementation methods are summarized to alleviate tumor hypoxia from the innovative perspective of using supplemental oxygen. Besides, the existing problems, future prospects and potential challenges of this strategy are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuheng Qin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Yue Xu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Hua Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Haiyan Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Zhenwei Yuan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing 210009, China.
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Yang C, Wang X, Ma W, Wang Z, Tan G, Fang W, Jin Y. Improving the photodynamic therapy of pyropheophorbide a through the combination of hypoxia-sensitive molecule and infrared light-excited d-TiO2−X nanoparticles. J PORPHYR PHTHALOCYA 2021. [DOI: 10.1142/s1088424621500784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involving the generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species under light in the presence of sufficient oxygen has been widely used in diagnosing and treating cancer. However, the ubiquitous hypoxia in many solid tumors due to their abnormal proliferation and vascularization has greatly compromised the therapeutic effect. We have designed and prepared a tumor therapeutic nanoplatform for improving PDT based on defective TiO[Formula: see text] (d-TiO[Formula: see text] with the consideration that the continuous PDT would cause hypoxic tumor microenvironment (HTM) in which many hypoxia-sensitive drugs might be activated to exert the antitumor activities. The inorganic d-TiO[Formula: see text] nanoparticles (NPs) were firstly prepared and then modified by APTES to obtain the mesoporous d-TiO[Formula: see text]@SiO2NPs. The organic photosensitizer pyropheophorbide-a (PPa) and hypoxic-sensitive agent 6-aminoflavone (AF) were then adsorbed in the mesoporous SiO2, followed by further hydrophilic PEGylation to improve the biocompatibility. Defective d-TiO[Formula: see text] and the PPa could simultaneously consume oxygen after light excitation, while the resulted HTM was utilized to activate the hypoxic-sensitive agent 6-aminoflavone (AF) to trigger anti-cancer effect. The prepared d-TiO[Formula: see text]@SiO2/PPa/AF@PEG NPs were stable in normal physiological environment, and could continuously release PPa and AF under slightly acidic conditions. The in vitro experiments against cancer cells suggested that the combination of PPa and AF displayed significantly enhanced antitumor activities than that of monotherapy. Therefore, this research offered a potential application for 6-aminoflavone in PDT-induced hypoxia to improve the antitumor effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Yang
- Key Laboratory for Photonic and Electronic Bandgap Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, P. R. China
| | - Xingchao Wang
- Key Laboratory for Photonic and Electronic Bandgap Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, P. R. China
| | - Wei Ma
- Key Laboratory for Photonic and Electronic Bandgap Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, P. R. China
| | - Zhiqiang Wang
- Key Laboratory for Photonic and Electronic Bandgap Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, P. R. China
| | - Guanghui Tan
- Key Laboratory for Photonic and Electronic Bandgap Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, P. R. China
| | - Wen Fang
- Key Laboratory for Photonic and Electronic Bandgap Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, P. R. China
| | - Yingxue Jin
- Key Laboratory for Photonic and Electronic Bandgap Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, P. R. China
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Arifler D, Guillaud M. Assessment of internal refractive index profile of stochastically inhomogeneous nuclear models via analysis of two-dimensional optical scattering patterns. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2021; 26:JBO-200345RR. [PMID: 33973424 PMCID: PMC8107832 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.26.5.055001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Optical scattering signals obtained from tissue constituents contain a wealth of structural information. Conventional intensity features, however, are mostly dictated by the overall morphology and mean refractive index of these constituents, making it very difficult to exclusively sense internal refractive index fluctuations. AIM We perform a systematic analysis to elucidate how changes in internal refractive index profile of cell nuclei can best be detected via optical scattering. APPROACH We construct stochastically inhomogeneous nuclear models and numerically simulate their azimuth-resolved scattering patterns. We then process these two-dimensional patterns with the goal of identifying features that directly point to subnuclear structure. RESULTS Azimuth-dependent intensity variations over the side scattering range provide significant insights into subnuclear refractive index profile. A particular feature we refer to as contrast ratio is observed to be highly sensitive to the length scale and extent of refractive index fluctuations; further, this feature is not susceptible to changes in the overall size and mean refractive index of nuclei, thereby allowing for selective tracking of subnuclear structure that can be linked to chromatin distribution. CONCLUSIONS Our analysis will potentially pave the way for scattering-based assessment of chromatin reorganization that is considered to be a key hallmark of precancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dizem Arifler
- Middle East Technical University, Northern Cyprus Campus, Physics Group, Kalkanli, Turkey
| | - Martial Guillaud
- British Columbia Cancer Research Center, Department of Integrative Oncology, Imaging Unit, Vancouver BC, Canada
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Retinal capillary oximetry with visible light optical coherence tomography. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:11658-11666. [PMID: 32398376 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1918546117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessing oxygen saturation (sO2) remains challenging but is nonetheless necessary for understanding retinal metabolism. We and others previously achieved oximetry on major retinal vessels and measured the total retinal oxygen metabolic rate in rats using visible-light optical coherence tomography. Here we extend oximetry measurements to capillaries and investigate all three retinal vascular plexuses by amplifying and extracting the spectroscopic signal from each capillary segment under the guidance of optical coherence tomography (OCT) angiography. Using this approach, we measured capillary sO2 in the retinal circulation in rats, demonstrated reproducibility of the results, validated the measurements in superficial capillaries with known perfusion pathways, and determined sO2 responses to hypoxia and hyperoxia in the different retinal capillary beds. OCT capillary oximetry has the potential to provide new insights into the retinal circulation in the normal eye as well as in retinal vascular diseases.
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Hu D, Pan M, Yu Y, Sun A, Shi K, Qu Y, Qian Z. Application of nanotechnology for enhancing photodynamic therapy via ameliorating, neglecting, or exploiting tumor hypoxia. VIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/viw2.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- DanRong Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer CenterWest China HospitalSichuan University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy Chengdu Sichuan P. R. China
| | - Meng Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer CenterWest China HospitalSichuan University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy Chengdu Sichuan P. R. China
| | - Yan Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer CenterWest China HospitalSichuan University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy Chengdu Sichuan P. R. China
| | - Ao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer CenterWest China HospitalSichuan University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy Chengdu Sichuan P. R. China
| | - Kun Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer CenterWest China HospitalSichuan University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy Chengdu Sichuan P. R. China
| | - Ying Qu
- Department of Hematology and Research Laboratory of HematologyState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyWest China HospitalSichuan University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy Chengdu Sichuan P. R. China
| | - ZhiYong Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer CenterWest China HospitalSichuan University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy Chengdu Sichuan P. R. China
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Liu R, Cheng S, Tian L, Yi J. Deep spectral learning for label-free optical imaging oximetry with uncertainty quantification. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2019; 8:102. [PMID: 31754429 PMCID: PMC6864044 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-019-0216-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Measurement of blood oxygen saturation (sO2) by optical imaging oximetry provides invaluable insight into local tissue functions and metabolism. Despite different embodiments and modalities, all label-free optical-imaging oximetry techniques utilize the same principle of sO2-dependent spectral contrast from haemoglobin. Traditional approaches for quantifying sO2 often rely on analytical models that are fitted by the spectral measurements. These approaches in practice suffer from uncertainties due to biological variability, tissue geometry, light scattering, systemic spectral bias, and variations in the experimental conditions. Here, we propose a new data-driven approach, termed deep spectral learning (DSL), to achieve oximetry that is highly robust to experimental variations and, more importantly, able to provide uncertainty quantification for each sO2 prediction. To demonstrate the robustness and generalizability of DSL, we analyse data from two visible light optical coherence tomography (vis-OCT) setups across two separate in vivo experiments on rat retinas. Predictions made by DSL are highly adaptive to experimental variabilities as well as the depth-dependent backscattering spectra. Two neural-network-based models are tested and compared with the traditional least-squares fitting (LSF) method. The DSL-predicted sO2 shows significantly lower mean-square errors than those of the LSF. For the first time, we have demonstrated en face maps of retinal oximetry along with a pixel-wise confidence assessment. Our DSL overcomes several limitations of traditional approaches and provides a more flexible, robust, and reliable deep learning approach for in vivo non-invasive label-free optical oximetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongrong Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Shiyi Cheng
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215 USA
| | - Lei Tian
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215 USA
| | - Ji Yi
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215 USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215 USA
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118 USA
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12
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Du Y, Yang X, Gong Q, Xu Z, Cheng Y, Su G. Inhibitor of growth 4 affects hypoxia-induced migration and angiogenesis regulation in retinal pigment epithelial cells. J Cell Physiol 2019; 234:15243-15256. [PMID: 30667053 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.28170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitor of growth 4 (ING4), a potential tumor suppressor, is implicated in cell migration and angiogenesis. However, its effects on diabetic retinopathy (DR) have not been elucidated. In this study, we aimed to evaluate ING4 expression in normal and diabetic rats and clarify its effects on hypoxia-induced dysfunction in human retinal pigment epithelial (ARPE-19) cells. A Type 1 diabetic model was generated by injecting rats intraperitoneally with streptozotocin and then killed them 4, 8, or 12 weeks later. ING4 expression in retinal tissue was detected using western blot analysis, reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and immunohistochemistry assays. After transfection with an ING4 overexpression lentiviral vector or small interfering RNA (siRNA), ARPE-19 migration under hypoxia was tested using wound healing and transwell assays. The angiogenic effect of conditioned medium (CM) from ARPE-19 cells was examined by assessing human retinal endothelial cell (HREC) capillary tube formation. Additionally, western blot analysis and RT-qPCR were performed to investigate the signaling pathways in which ING4, specificity protein 1 (Sp1), matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), MMP-9, and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) were involved. Here, we found that ING4 expression was significantly reduced in the diabetic rats' retinal tissue. Silencing ING4 aggravated hypoxia-induced ARPE-19 cell migration. CM collected from ING4 siRNA-transfected ARPE-19 cells under hypoxia promoted HREC angiogenesis. These effects were reversed by ING4 overexpression. Furthermore, ING4 suppressed MMP-2, MMP-9, and VEGF-A expression in an Sp1-dependent manner in hypoxia-conditioned ARPE-19 cells. Overall, our results provide valuable mechanistic insights into the protective effects of ING4 on hypoxia-induced migration and angiogenesis regulation in ARPE-19 cells. Restoring ING4 may be a novel strategy for treating DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Du
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xinyue Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Qiaoyun Gong
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Zhixiang Xu
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Yan Cheng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Guanfang Su
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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Qian R, Huang WF, McNabb RP, Zhou KC, Liu QH, Kuo AN, Izatt JA. Ocular anterior chamber blood cell population differentiation using spectroscopic optical coherence tomography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:3281-3300. [PMID: 31467779 PMCID: PMC6706034 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.003281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
There is potential clinical significance in identifying cellular responses in the anterior chamber (AC) of the eye, which can indicate hyphema (an accumulation of red blood cells [RBCs]) or aberrant intraocular inflammation (an accumulation of white blood cells [WBCs]). In this work, we developed a spectroscopic OCT analysis method to differentiate between populations of RBCs and subtypes of WBCs, including granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes, both in vitro and in ACs of porcine eyes. We developed an algorithm to track single cells within OCT data sets, and extracted the backscatter reflectance spectrum of each single cell from the detected interferograms using the short-time Fourier transform (STFT). A look-up table of Mie back-scattering spectra was generated and used to correlate the backscatter spectral features of single cells to their characteristic sizes. The extracted size distributions based on the best Mie spectra fit were significantly different between each cell type. We also studied theoretical backscattering models of single RBCs to further validate our experimental results. The described work is a promising step towards clinically differentiating and quantifying AC blood cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruobing Qian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Wei-feng Huang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Ryan P. McNabb
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University Medical Center, NC 27710, USA
| | - Kevin C. Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Qing H. Liu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Anthony N. Kuo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University Medical Center, NC 27710, USA
| | - Joseph A. Izatt
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University Medical Center, NC 27710, USA
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14
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Refractive index of human red blood cells between 290 nm and 1100 nm determined by optical extinction measurements. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4623. [PMID: 30874567 PMCID: PMC6420646 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-38767-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The knowledge of optical properties of biological cells is essential to interpret their interaction with light and to derive morphological information and parameters associated with cell function like the oxygen transport capacity of human red blood cells (RBCs). We present a method to determine the dependence between the refractive index (RI) of human RBCs and their intracellular hemoglobin (Hb) concentration from spectral extinction measurements of a cell suspension. The procedure is based on the analysis of the corresponding ensemble averaged extinction cross section \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\bar{{\boldsymbol{C}}}}_{{\bf{e}}{\bf{x}}{\bf{t}}}(\lambda )$$\end{document}C¯ext(λ). Thus far two complementary approaches have been taken to derive RIs of RBCs. The first one uses homogeneous macroscopic samples prepared by hemolysis for the destruction of the RBCs’ membranes and subsequent centrifugation. A second approach is the determination of RIs of single intact cells by microscopic investigation. These techniques are limited to a few discrete wavelengths or a rather narrow wavelength range. In addition most of these techniques require additional information about the concentration dependence. In contrast, our approach yields the RI increment with Hb concentration of intact, reversibly isovolumetrically sphered, oxygenated RBCs over a wide wavelength range from 290 nm to 1100 nm from macroscopic measurements.
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15
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Liu R, Song W, Backman V, Yi J. Quantitative quality-control metrics for in vivo oximetry in small vessels by visible light optical coherence tomography angiography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:465-486. [PMID: 30800493 PMCID: PMC6377897 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.000465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Biological functions rely on local microvasculature to deliver oxygen and nutrients and carry away metabolic waste. Alterations to local oxygenation levels are manifested in diseases including cancer, diabetes mellitus, etc. The ability to quantify oxygen saturation (sO2) within microvasculature in vivo to assess local tissue oxygenation and metabolic function is highly sought after. Visible light optical coherence tomography (vis-OCT) angiography has shown promise in reaching this goal. However, achieving reliable measurements in small vessels can be challenging due to the reduced contrast and requires data averaging to improve the spectral data quality. Therefore, a method for quality-control of the vis-OCT data from small vessels becomes essential to reject unreliable readings. In this work, we present a quantitative metrics to evaluate the spectral data for a reliable measurement of sO2, including angiography signal to noise ratio (SNR), spectral anomaly detection and discard, and theory-experiment correlation analysis. The thresholds for each quantity can be flexibly adjusted according to different applications and system performance. We used these metrics to measure sO2 of C57BL/6J mouse lower extremity microvasculature and validated it by introducing hyperoxia for expected sO2 changes. After validation, we applied this protocol on C57BL/6J mouse ear microvasculature to conduct in vivo small blood vessel OCT oximetry. This work seeks to standardize the data processing method for in vivo oximetry in small vessels by vis-OCT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongrong Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Weiye Song
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Vadim Backman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Ji Yi
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
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16
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Winkelmann JA, Eid A, Spicer G, Almassalha LM, Nguyen TQ, Backman V. Spectral contrast optical coherence tomography angiography enables single-scan vessel imaging. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2019; 8:7. [PMID: 30651982 PMCID: PMC6333625 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-018-0117-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography angiography relies on motion for contrast and requires at least two data acquisitions per pointwise scanning location. We present a method termed spectral contrast optical coherence tomography angiography using visible light that relies on the spectral signatures of blood for angiography from a single scan using endogenous contrast. We demonstrate the molecular sensitivity of this method, which enables lymphatic vessel, blood, and tissue discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A. Winkelmann
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Aya Eid
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Graham Spicer
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Luay M. Almassalha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - The-Quyen Nguyen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Vadim Backman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
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17
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Pi S, Camino A, Wei X, Simonett J, Cepurna W, Huang D, Morrison JC, Jia Y. Rodent retinal circulation organization and oxygen metabolism revealed by visible-light optical coherence tomography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 9:5851-5862. [PMID: 30460167 PMCID: PMC6238898 DOI: 10.1364/boe.9.005851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Visible light optical coherence tomography (vis-OCT) is an emerging label-free and high-resolution 3-dimensional imaging technique that can provide retinal oximetry, angiography, and flowmetry in one modality. In this paper, we studied the organization of the arterial and venous retinal circulation in rats using vis-OCT. Arterioles were found predominantly in the superficial vascular plexus whereas veins tended to drain capillaries from the deep capillary plexus. After that, we determined the oxygen metabolic rate supported by retinal microcirculation by combining retinal vessel oxygen saturation and blood flow measurements. The ability to visualize and monitor retinal circulation organization and oxygen metabolism by vis-OCT may provide new opportunities for understanding the pathology of ocular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Pi
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Acner Camino
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Xiang Wei
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Joseph Simonett
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - William Cepurna
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - David Huang
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - John C. Morrison
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Yali Jia
- Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
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18
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Song W, Zhou L, Zhang S, Ness S, Desai M, Yi J. Fiber-based visible and near infrared optical coherence tomography (vnOCT) enables quantitative elastic light scattering spectroscopy in human retina. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 9:3464-3480. [PMID: 29984110 PMCID: PMC6033571 DOI: 10.1364/boe.9.003464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Elastic light scattering spectroscopy (ELSS) has been proven a powerful method in measuring tissue structures with exquisite nanoscale sensitivity. However, ELSS contrast in the living human retina has been relatively underexplored, primarily due to the lack of imaging tools with a large spectral bandwidth. Here, we report a simple all fiber-based setup to implement dual-channel visible and near infrared (NIR) optical coherence tomography (vnOCT) for human retinal imaging, bridging over a 300nm spectral gap. Remarkably, the fiber components in our vnOCT system support single-mode propagation for both visible and NIR light, both of which maintain excellent interference efficiencies with fringe visibility of 97% and 90%, respectively. The longitudinal chromatic aberration from the eye is corrected by a custom-designed achromatizing lens. The elegant fiber-based design enables simultaneous imaging for both channels and allows comprehensive ELSS analysis on several important anatomical layers, including nerve fiber layer, outer segment of the photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium. This vnOCT platform and method of ELSS analysis open new opportunities in understanding structure-function relationship in the human retina and in exploring new biomarkers for retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiye Song
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Libo Zhou
- College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130012, China
| | - Sui Zhang
- Danna-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Steven Ness
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Medical Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Manishi Desai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Medical Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Ji Yi
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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19
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Liu R, Winkelmann JA, Spicer G, Zhu Y, Eid A, Ameer GA, Backman V, Yi J. Single capillary oximetry and tissue ultrastructural sensing by dual-band dual-scan inverse spectroscopic optical coherence tomography. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2018; 7:57. [PMID: 30839641 PMCID: PMC6113297 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-018-0057-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Measuring capillary oxygenation and the surrounding ultrastructure can allow one to monitor a microvascular niche and better understand crucial biological mechanisms. However, capillary oximetry and pericapillary ultrastructure are challenging to measure in vivo. Here we demonstrate a novel optical imaging system, dual-band dual-scan inverse spectroscopic optical coherence tomography (D2-ISOCT), that, for the first time, can simultaneously obtain the following metrics in vivo using endogenous contrast: (1) capillary-level oxygen saturation and arteriolar-level blood flow rates, oxygen delivery rates, and oxygen metabolic rates; (2) spatial characteristics of tissue structures at length scales down to 30 nm; and (3) morphological images up to 2 mm in depth. To illustrate the capabilities of D2-ISOCT, we monitored alterations to capillaries and the surrounding pericapillary tissue (tissue between the capillaries) in the healing response of a mouse ear wound model. The obtained microvascular and ultrastructural metrics corroborated well with each other, showing the promise of D2-ISOCT for becoming a powerful new non-invasive imaging tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongrong Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - James A. Winkelmann
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Graham Spicer
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Yunxiao Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Aya Eid
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Guillermo A. Ameer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Vadim Backman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
| | - Ji Yi
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118 USA
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20
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Shu X, Beckmann L, Zhang HF. Visible-light optical coherence tomography: a review. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2017; 22:1-14. [PMID: 29218923 PMCID: PMC5745673 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.22.12.121707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Visible-light optical coherence tomography (vis-OCT) is an emerging imaging modality, providing new capabilities in both anatomical and functional imaging of biological tissue. It relies on visible light illumination, whereas most commercial and investigational OCTs use near-infrared light. As a result, vis-OCT requires different considerations in engineering design and implementation but brings unique potential benefits to both fundamental research and clinical care of several diseases. Here, we intend to provide a summary of the development of vis-OCT and its demonstrated applications. We also provide perspectives on future technology improvement and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Shu
- Northwestern University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Evanston, Illinois, United States
| | - Lisa Beckmann
- Northwestern University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Evanston, Illinois, United States
| | - Hao F. Zhang
- Northwestern University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Evanston, Illinois, United States
- Northwestern University, Department of Ophthalmology, Chicago, Illinois, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Hao F. Zhang, E-mail:
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21
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Dang J, He H, Chen D, Yin L. Manipulating tumor hypoxia toward enhanced photodynamic therapy (PDT). Biomater Sci 2017; 5:1500-1511. [DOI: 10.1039/c7bm00392g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This mini-review summarizes various methods for overcoming or utilizing hypoxia for enhanced PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanjuan Dang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM)
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215123
- P.R. China
| | - Hua He
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM)
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215123
- P.R. China
| | - Donglai Chen
- Department of Thoracic Surgery
- Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital
- Tongji University School of Medicine
- Shanghai
- P.R. China
| | - Lichen Yin
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM)
- Soochow University
- Suzhou 215123
- P.R. China
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