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Kvist A, Bezuidenhout L, Johansson H, Albrecht F, Moulaee Conradsson D, Franzén E. Validation of fNIRS measurement of executive demand during walking with and without dual-task in younger and older adults and people with Parkinson's disease. Neuroimage Clin 2024; 43:103637. [PMID: 38964222 PMCID: PMC11278929 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2024.103637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Walking with a concurrent cognitive task (dual-task walking) can pose a challenge to some populations due to aging or neurodegenerative disease. These tasks require cognitive resources involving the prefrontal cortex and can be studied using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). An important step in understanding fNIRS measures during such walking tasks is validating that measures reflect the demands of the tasks and not confounding sources or movement artifacts. AIM This study aimed to investigate the validity of fNIRS measures of prefrontal cortex activity as an indicator of executive demand during usual walking (single-task) and dual-task walking against clinical and objective measures of motor behavior in young adults, older adults, and people with Parkinson's disease (PD), by evaluating several validation hypotheses. METHODS In total, 133 participants were recruited from younger adults (18-50 years, n = 42), older adults (≥60 years, n = 49) and people with PD (≥60 years, n = 42). Activity in the prefrontal cortex during walking with and without an auditory Stroop task was measured with fNIRS. A combined hemoglobin measure (correlation-based signal improvement, CBSI) was calculated for use in a region of interest analysis in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). Pre-registered hypotheses regarding convergent validity, discriminant validity and known group validity were tested. An exploratory analysis of different hemoglobin measures was also performed. RESULTS Increases in dlPFC activity were found from single- to dual-task walking in the younger adults group and from rest to single-task walking in the older adults and PD groups. In line with hypotheses, a positive relationship was found between between dlPFC activity during dual-task walking and dual-task cost in the younger adults group, as well as a positive relationship to step time variability during single-task walking and a negative relationship to walking speed during single-task walking in the PD group. However, several clinical and gait measures lacked a relationship with dlPFC activity. CONCLUSION The fNIRS results point towards the CBSI measure of dlPFC activity being a valid measure of executive demand during both single and dual-task walking. Some relationships between clinical and gait measures and brain activity during walking need further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kvist
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Physiotherapy, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Lucian Bezuidenhout
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Physiotherapy, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Division of Physiotherapy, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Hanna Johansson
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Physiotherapy, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Women's Health and Allied Health Professionals Theme, Medical Unit Occupational Therapy & Physiotherapy, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Stockholm Sjukhem Foundation, Mariebergsgatan 22, 112 19 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Franziska Albrecht
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Physiotherapy, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Women's Health and Allied Health Professionals Theme, Medical Unit Occupational Therapy & Physiotherapy, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - David Moulaee Conradsson
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Physiotherapy, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Women's Health and Allied Health Professionals Theme, Medical Unit Occupational Therapy & Physiotherapy, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erika Franzén
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Physiotherapy, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Women's Health and Allied Health Professionals Theme, Medical Unit Occupational Therapy & Physiotherapy, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Stockholm Sjukhem Foundation, Mariebergsgatan 22, 112 19 Stockholm, Sweden
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Bálint A, Rummel C, Caversaccio M, Weder S. Three-dimensional infrared scanning: an enhanced approach for spatial registration of probes for neuroimaging. NEUROPHOTONICS 2024; 11:024309. [PMID: 38812965 PMCID: PMC11134420 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.11.2.024309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Significance Accurate spatial registration of probes (e.g., optodes and electrodes) for measurement of brain activity is a crucial aspect in many neuroimaging modalities. It may increase measurement precision and enable the transition from channel-based calculations to volumetric representations. Aim This technical note evaluates the efficacy of a commercially available infrared three-dimensional (3D) scanner under actual experimental (or clinical) conditions and provides guidelines for its use. Method We registered probe positions using an infrared 3D scanner and validated them against magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans on five volunteer participants. Results Our analysis showed that with standard cap fixation, the average Euclidean distance of probe position among subjects could reach up to 43 mm, with an average distance of 15.25 mm [standard deviation (SD) = 8.0]. By contrast, the average distance between the infrared 3D scanner and the MRI-acquired positions was 5.69 mm (SD = 1.73), while the average difference between consecutive infrared 3D scans was 3.43 mm (SD = 1.62). The inter-optode distance, which was fixed at 30 mm, was measured as 29.28 mm (SD = 1.12) on the MRI and 29.43 mm (SD = 1.96) on infrared 3D scans. Our results demonstrate the high accuracy and reproducibility of the proposed spatial registration method, making it suitable for both functional near-infrared spectroscopy and electroencephalogram studies. Conclusions The 3D infrared scanning technique for spatial registration of probes provides economic efficiency, simplicity, practicality, repeatability, and high accuracy, with potential benefits for a range of neuroimaging applications. We provide practical guidance on anonymization, labeling, and post-processing of acquired scans.
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Affiliation(s)
- András Bálint
- University of Bern, ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering Research, Hearing Research Laboratory, Bern, Switzerland
- Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Department of ENT - Head and Neck Surgery, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christian Rummel
- Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, University Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, Support Center for Advanced Neuroimaging (SCAN), Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marco Caversaccio
- University of Bern, ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering Research, Hearing Research Laboratory, Bern, Switzerland
- Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Department of ENT - Head and Neck Surgery, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Weder
- Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Department of ENT - Head and Neck Surgery, Bern, Switzerland
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Everitt A, Richards H, Song Y, Smith J, Kobylarz E, Lukovits T, Halter R, Murphy E. EEG electrode localization with 3D iPhone scanning using point-cloud electrode selection (PC-ES). J Neural Eng 2023; 20:066033. [PMID: 38055968 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/ad12db] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Objective.Electroencephalography source imaging (ESI) is a valuable tool in clinical evaluation for epilepsy patients but is underutilized in part due to sensitivity to anatomical modeling errors. Accurate localization of scalp electrodes is instrumental to ESI, but existing localization devices are expensive and not portable. As a result, electrode localization challenges further impede access to ESI, particularly in inpatient and intensive care settings.Approach.To address this challenge, we present a portable and affordable electrode digitization method using the 3D scanning feature in modern iPhone models. This technique combines iPhone scanning with semi-automated image processing using point-cloud electrode selection (PC-ES), a custom MATLAB desktop application. We compare iPhone electrode localization to state-of-the-art photogrammetry technology in a human study with over 6000 electrodes labeled using each method. We also characterize the performance of PC-ES with respect to head location and examine the relative impact of different algorithm parameters.Main Results.The median electrode position variation across reviewers was 1.50 mm for PC-ES scanning and 0.53 mm for photogrammetry, and the average median distance between PC-ES and photogrammetry electrodes was 3.4 mm. These metrics demonstrate comparable performance of iPhone/PC-ES scanning to currently available technology and sufficient accuracy for ESI.Significance.Low cost, portable electrode localization using iPhone scanning removes barriers to ESI in inpatient, outpatient, and remote care settings. While PC-ES has current limitations in user bias and processing time, we anticipate these will improve with software automation techniques as well as future developments in iPhone 3D scanning technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Everitt
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
| | - Haley Richards
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
| | - Yinchen Song
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03756, United States of America
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
| | - Joel Smith
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
| | - Erik Kobylarz
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03756, United States of America
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
| | - Timothy Lukovits
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03756, United States of America
| | - Ryan Halter
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
| | - Ethan Murphy
- Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, United States of America
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Dopierała AAW, López Pérez D, Mercure E, Pluta A, Malinowska-Korczak A, Evans S, Wolak T, Tomalski P. Watching talking faces: The development of cortical representation of visual syllables in infancy. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2023; 244:105304. [PMID: 37481794 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2023.105304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
From birth, we perceive speech by hearing and seeing people talk. In adults cortical representations of visual speech are processed in the putative temporal visual speech area (TVSA), but it remains unknown how these representations develop. We measured infants' cortical responses to silent visual syllables and non-communicative mouth movements using functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. Our results indicate that cortical specialisation for visual speech may emerge during infancy. The putative TVSA was active to both visual syllables and gurning around 5 months of age, and more active to gurning than to visual syllables around 10 months of age. Multivariate pattern analysis classification of distinct cortical responses to visual speech and gurning was successful at 10, but not at 5 months of age. These findings imply that cortical representations of visual speech change between 5 and 10 months of age, showing that the putative TVSA is initially broadly tuned and becomes selective with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra A W Dopierała
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - David López Pérez
- Institute of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Agnieszka Pluta
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; Institute of Physiology and Pathology of Hearing, Bioimaging Research Center, World Hearing Centre, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Samuel Evans
- University of Westminister, London, UK; Kings College London, London, UK.
| | - Tomasz Wolak
- Institute of Physiology and Pathology of Hearing, Bioimaging Research Center, World Hearing Centre, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Przemysław Tomalski
- Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; Institute of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
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Schroeder PA, Artemenko C, Kosie JE, Cockx H, Stute K, Pereira J, Klein F, Mehler DMA. Using preregistration as a tool for transparent fNIRS study design. NEUROPHOTONICS 2023; 10:023515. [PMID: 36908680 PMCID: PMC9993433 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.10.2.023515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Significance The expansion of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) methodology and analysis tools gives rise to various design and analytical decisions that researchers have to make. Several recent efforts have developed guidelines for preprocessing, analyzing, and reporting practices. For the planning stage of fNIRS studies, similar guidance is desirable. Study preregistration helps researchers to transparently document study protocols before conducting the study, including materials, methods, and analyses, and thus, others to verify, understand, and reproduce a study. Preregistration can thus serve as a useful tool for transparent, careful, and comprehensive fNIRS study design. Aim We aim to create a guide on the design and analysis steps involved in fNIRS studies and to provide a preregistration template specified for fNIRS studies. Approach The presented preregistration guide has a strong focus on fNIRS specific requirements, and the associated template provides examples based on continuous-wave (CW) fNIRS studies conducted in humans. These can, however, be extended to other types of fNIRS studies. Results On a step-by-step basis, we walk the fNIRS user through key methodological and analysis-related aspects central to a comprehensive fNIRS study design. These include items specific to the design of CW, task-based fNIRS studies, but also sections that are of general importance, including an in-depth elaboration on sample size planning. Conclusions Our guide introduces these open science tools to the fNIRS community, providing researchers with an overview of key design aspects and specification recommendations for comprehensive study planning. As such it can be used as a template to preregister fNIRS studies or merely as a tool for transparent fNIRS study design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp A. Schroeder
- University of Tuebingen, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Christina Artemenko
- University of Tuebingen, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Jessica E. Kosie
- Princeton University, Social and Natural Sciences, Department of Psychology, Princeton, New Jersey, United States
| | - Helena Cockx
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Biophysics Department, Faculty of Science, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Katharina Stute
- Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute of Human Movement Science and Health, Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - João Pereira
- University of Coimbra, Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Franziska Klein
- University of Oldenburg, Department of Psychology, Neurocognition and functional Neurorehabilitation Group, Oldenburg (Oldb), Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Aachen, Germany
| | - David M. A. Mehler
- RWTH Aachen University, Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Aachen, Germany
- University of Münster, Institute for Translational Psychiatry, Medical School, Münster, Germany
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Liu Y, Sánchez Hernández F, Ting F, Hyde DC. Comparing fixed-array and functionally-defined channel of interest approaches to infant functional near-infrared spectroscopy data. Neuroimage 2022; 261:119520. [PMID: 35901918 PMCID: PMC9480621 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is increasingly used to study brain function in infants, but the development and standardization of analysis techniques for use with infant fNIRS data have not paced other technical advances. Here we quantify and compare the effects of different methods of analysis of infant fNIRS data on two independent fNIRS datasets involving 6-9-month-old infants and a third simulated infant fNIRS dataset. With each, we contrast results from a traditional, fixed-array analysis with several functional channel of interest (fCOI) analysis approaches. In addition, we tested the effects of varying the number and anatomical location of potential data channels to be included in the fCOI definition. Over three studies we find that fCOI approaches are more sensitive than fixed-array analyses, especially when channels of interests were defined within-subjects. Applying anatomical restriction and/or including multiple channels in the fCOI definition does not decrease and in some cases increases sensitivity of fCOI methods. Based on these results, we recommend that researchers consider employing fCOI approaches to the analysis of infant fNIRS data and provide some guidelines for choosing between particular fCOI approaches and settings for the study of infant brain function and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyu Liu
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Psychology, Champaign, United States
| | | | - Fransisca Ting
- Boston University, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston, United States
| | - Daniel C Hyde
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Psychology, Champaign, United States; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Neuroscience Program, Urbana, United States.
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Smartphone-based photogrammetry provides improved localization and registration of scalp-mounted neuroimaging sensors. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10862. [PMID: 35760834 PMCID: PMC9237074 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14458-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional near infrared spectroscopy and electroencephalography are non-invasive techniques that rely on sensors placed over the scalp. The spatial localization of the measured brain activity requires the precise individuation of sensor positions and, when individual anatomical information is not available, the accurate registration of these sensor positions to a head atlas. Both these issues could be successfully addressed using a photogrammetry-based method. In this study we demonstrate that sensor positions can be accurately detected from a video recorded with a smartphone, with a median localization error of 0.7 mm, comparable if not lower, to that of conventional approaches. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the additional information of the shape of the participant’s head can be further exploited to improve the registration of the sensor’s positions to a head atlas, reducing the median sensor localization error of 31% compared to the standard registration approach.
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Baek S, Jaffe-Dax S, Bejjanki VR, Emberson L. Temporal Predictability Modulates Cortical Activity and Functional Connectivity in the Frontoparietal Network in 6-Month-Old Infants. J Cogn Neurosci 2022; 34:766-775. [PMID: 35139200 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Despite the abundance of behavioral evidence showing the interaction between attention and prediction in infants, the neural underpinnings of this interaction are not yet well-understood. The endogenous attentional function in adults have been largely localized to the frontoparietal network. However, resting-state and neuroanatomical investigations have found that this frontoparietal network exhibits a protracted developmental trajectory and involves weak and unmyelinated long-range connections early in infancy. Can this developmentally nascent network still be modulated by predictions? Here, we conducted the first investigation of infant frontoparietal network engagement as a function of the predictability of visual events. Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, the hemodynamic response in the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes was analyzed as infants watched videos of temporally predictable or unpredictable sequences. We replicated previous findings of cortical signal attenuation in the frontal and sensory cortices in response to predictable sequences and extended these findings to the parietal lobe. We also estimated background functional connectivity (i.e., by regressing out task-evoked responses) to reveal that frontoparietal functional connectivity was significantly greater during predictable sequences compared to unpredictable sequences, suggesting that this frontoparietal network may underlie how the infant brain communicates predictions. Taken together, our results illustrate that temporal predictability modulates the activation and connectivity of the frontoparietal network early in infancy, supporting the notion that this network may be functionally available early in life despite its protracted developmental trajectory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lauren Emberson
- Princeton University, NJ.,University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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Blanco B, Molnar M, Carreiras M, Collins-Jones LH, Vidal E, Cooper RJ, Caballero-Gaudes C. Group-level cortical functional connectivity patterns using fNIRS: assessing the effect of bilingualism in young infants. NEUROPHOTONICS 2021; 8:025011. [PMID: 34136588 PMCID: PMC8200331 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.8.2.025011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Early monolingual versus bilingual experience induces adaptations in the development of linguistic and cognitive processes, and it modulates functional activation patterns during the first months of life. Resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) is a convenient approach to study the functional organization of the infant brain. RSFC can be measured in infants during natural sleep, and it allows to simultaneously investigate various functional systems. Adaptations have been observed in RSFC due to a lifelong bilingual experience. Investigating whether bilingualism-induced adaptations in RSFC begin to emerge early in development has important implications for our understanding of how the infant brain's organization can be shaped by early environmental factors. Aims: We attempt to describe RSFC using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and to examine whether it adapts to early monolingual versus bilingual environments. We also present an fNIRS data preprocessing and analysis pipeline that can be used to reliably characterize RSFC in development and to reduce false positives and flawed results interpretations. Methods: We measured spontaneous hemodynamic brain activity in a large cohort ( N = 99 ) of 4-month-old monolingual and bilingual infants using fNIRS. We implemented group-level approaches based on independent component analysis to examine RSFC, while providing proper control for physiological confounds and multiple comparisons. Results: At the group level, we describe the functional organization of the 4-month-old infant brain in large-scale cortical networks. Unbiased group-level comparisons revealed no differences in RSFC between monolingual and bilingual infants at this age. Conclusions: High-quality fNIRS data provide a means to reliably describe RSFC patterns in the infant brain. The proposed group-level RSFC analyses allow to assess differences in RSFC across experimental conditions. An effect of early bilingual experience in RSFC was not observed, suggesting that adaptations might only emerge during explicit linguistic tasks, or at a later point in development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borja Blanco
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain, and Language, Donostia/San Sebastián, Spain
- University College London, Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, DOT-HUB, London, United Kingdom
| | - Monika Molnar
- University of Toronto, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Speech-Language Pathology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Manuel Carreiras
- Basque Center on Cognition, Brain, and Language, Donostia/San Sebastián, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Liam H. Collins-Jones
- University College London, Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, DOT-HUB, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ernesto Vidal
- University College London, Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, DOT-HUB, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert J. Cooper
- University College London, Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, DOT-HUB, London, United Kingdom
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