Electron beam quality control using an amorphous silicon EPID

Quantifying radiotherapy beam quality: an analysis using gamma passing rates

Purpose. PDD and profile curves play a crucial role in analyzing the beam quality and energy stability of accelerators. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of GPR in machine QA and compare it with traditional methods for analyzing dose outputs.Methods. GPRs were employed to assess the quality of radiation beams by comparing 1D and 2D Profile metrics and PDD data against commissioning data. The data used were obtained from the ASCII data files derived from the water tank. GPRs were calculated for all plots with a lower percentage dose cutoff of 10%. The local GPRs and dose influence for the 2D PDD metrics and dose influence were calculated for an open field 10 × 10 cm2photon beam at SSD = 100 cm. In both 1D and 2D GPRs analyses, criterion of 1%/1 mm was adopted, as this approach allows for the capture of more subtle variations in the data. To substantiate the viability of the study, a comparative analysis was conducted by comparing the outcomes of the gamma analysis with those derived from traditional methods, such as manual machine quality assurance checks.Results. GPRs demonstrated a superior capability for comprehensive data analysis compared to traditional methods. For the 1D curves, the passing rates (γ≤ 1) are 96.19%, 100%, and 93.46%, respectively. With respect to the 2D dose influence, the PDD image passing rate was 99.57%, and significant dose differences were observed at the four corners of the open field, indicating areas that require further investigation.Conclusions. Compared to traditional methods, GPRs are more sensitive to subtle changes in the data, providing valuable insights into the accelerator beam status.

An electronic portal image device (EPID)-based multiplatform rapid daily LINAC QA tool

PURPOSE

To develop an efficient and economic daily quality research tool (DQRT) for daily check of multiplatform linear accelerators (LINACs) with flattening filter (FF) and flattening filter-free (FFF) photon beams by using an Electronic Portal Image Device (EPID).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After EPID calibration, the monitored parameters were analyzed from a 10 cm × 10 cm open and 60° wedge portal images measured by the EPID with 100 MU exposure. Next, the repeatability of the EPID position accuracy, long-term stability, and linearity between image gray value and exposure were verified. Output and beam quality stability of the 6-MV FF and FFF beams measured by DQRT with the introduced setup errors of EPID were also surveyed. Besides, some test results obtained by DQRT were compared with those measured by FC65-G and Matrixx. At last, the tool was evaluated on three LINACs (Synergy, VersaHD, TrueBeam) for 2 months with two popular commercial QA tools as references.

RESULTS

There are no differences between repeatability tests for all monitored parameters. Image grayscale values obtained by EPID and exposure show good linearity. Either 6 MV FF or FFF photon beam shows minimal impact to the results. The differences between FC65-G, Matrixx and DQRT results are negligible. Monitor results of the two commercial tools are consistent with the DQRT results collected during the 2-month period.

CONCLUSION

With a shorter time and procedure, the DQRT is useful to daily QA works of LINACs, producing a QA result quality similarly to or more better than the traditional tools and giving richer contents to the QA results. For hospitals with limited QA time window available or lack of funding to purchase commercial QA tools, the proposed DQRT can provide an alternative and economic approach to accomplish the task of daily QA for LINACs.

[Dose Distribution Combinations of Different Electron Beam Energy for Treatment Region Expansion in High-energy Electron Beam Radiation Therapy: A Feasibility Study]

INTRODUCTION

External electron beams have excellent distributions in treatment for superficial tumors while suppressing influence deeper normal tissue. However, the skin surface cannot be given a sufficient dose due to the build-up effect. In this study, we have investigated the combination of electron beams to expand the treatment region by keeping the dose gradient beyond d_max.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The percentage depth doses of different electron beams were superimposed on a spreadsheet to determine the combinations of electron beams so that the treatment range was maximized. Based on the obtained weight for electron beams, dose distributions were calculated using a treatment planning system and examined for potential clinical application.

RESULTS

With the combination of 4 MeV and 9 MeV electron beams, the 90% treatment range in the depth direction increased by 8.0 mm, and with 4 MeV and 12 MeV beams, it increased by 4.0 mm, with the same maximum dose depth and halfdose depth of the absorbed dose. The dose calculations were performed using the treatment planning system yielded similar results with a matching degree of ±1.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the influences of low monitor unit values and daily output differences remain to be considered, the results suggest that the proposed approach can be clinically applied to expand treatment regions easily.

Rapid acceptance testing of modern linac using on-board MV and kV imaging systems

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to develop a novel process for using on-board MV and kV Electronic Portal Imaging Devices (EPIDs) to perform linac acceptance testing (AT) for two reasons: (a) to standardize the assessment of new equipment performance, and (b) to reduce the time to clinical use while reducing physicist workload.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

In this study, Varian TrueBeam linacs equipped with amorphous silicon-based EPID (aS1000) were used. The conventional set of AT tests and tolerances were used as a baseline guide. A novel methodology was developed or adopted from published literature to perform as many tests as possible using the MV and kV EPIDs. The developer mode on Varian TrueBeam linacs was used to automate the process. In the EPID-based approach, most of mechanical tests were conducted by acquiring images through a custom phantom and software tools were developed for quantitative analysis to extract different performance parameters. The embedded steel-spheres in a custom phantom provided both visual and radiographic guidance for beam geometry testing. For photon beams, open field EPID images were used to extract inline/crossline profiles to verify the beam energy, flatness and symmetry. EPID images through a double wedge phantom were used for evaluating electron beam properties via diagonal profile. Testing was augmented with a commercial automated application (Machine Performance Check) which was used to perform several geometric accuracy tests such as gantry, collimator rotations, and couch rotations/translations.

RESULTS

The developed process demonstrated that the tests, which required customer demonstration, were efficiently performed using EPIDs. The AT tests that were performed using EPIDs were fully automated using the developer mode on the Varian TrueBeam system, while some tests, such as the light field versus radiation field congruence, and collision interlock checks required user interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

On-board imagers are quite suitable for both geometric and dosimetric testing of linac system involved in AT. Electronic format of the acquired data lends itself to benchmarking, transparency, as well as longitudinal use of AT data. While the tests were performed on a specific model of a linear accelerator, the proposed approach can be extended to other linacs.

Development of an accurate EPID-based output measurement and dosimetric verification tool for electron beam therapy

PURPOSE

To develop an efficient and robust tool for output measurement and absolute dose verification of electron beam therapy by using a high spatial-resolution and high frame-rate amorphous silicon flat panel electronic portal imaging device (EPID).

METHODS

The dosimetric characteristics of the EPID, including saturation, linearity, and ghosting effect, were first investigated on a Varian Clinac 21EX accelerator. The response kernels of the individual pixels of the EPID to all available electron energies (6, 9, 12, 16, and 20 MeV) were calculated by using Monte Carlo (MC) simulations, which formed the basis to deconvolve an EPID raw images to the incident electron fluence map. The two-dimensional (2D) dose distribution at reference depths in water was obtained by using the constructed fluence map with a MC simulated pencil beam kernel with consideration of the geometric and structural information of the EPID. Output factor measurements were carried out with the EPID at a nominal source-surface distance of 100 cm for 2 × 2, 3 × 3, 6 × 6, 10 × 10, and 15 × 15 cm(2) fields for all available electron energies, and the results were compared with that measured in a solid water phantom using film and a Farmer-type ion chamber. The dose distributions at a reference depth specific to each energy and the flatness and symmetry of the 10 × 10 cm(2) electron beam were also measured using EPID, and the results were compared with ion chamber array and water scan measurements. Finally, three patient cases with various field sizes and irregular cutout shapes were also investigated.

RESULTS

EPID-measured dose changed linearly with the monitor units and showed little ghosting effect for dose rate up to 600 MU/min. The flatness and symmetry measured with the EPID were found to be consistent with ion chamber array and water scan measurements. The EPID-measured output factors for standard square fields of 2 × 2, 3 × 3, 6 × 6, 10 × 10, 15 × 15 cm(2) agreed with film and ion chamber measurements. The average discrepancy between EPID and ion chamber/film measurements was 0.81% ± 0.60% (SD) and 1.34% ± 0.75%, respectively. For the three clinical cases, the difference in output between the EPID- and ion chamber array measured values was found to be 1.13% ± 0.11%, 0.54% ± 0.10%, and 0.74% ± 0.11%, respectively. Furthermore, the γ-index analysis showed an excellent agreement between the EPID- and ion chamber array measured dose distributions: 100% of the pixels passed the criteria of 3%/3 mm. When the γ-index was set to be 2%/2 mm, the pass rate was found to be 99.0% ± 0.07%, 98.2% ± 0.14%, and 100% for the three cases.

CONCLUSIONS

The EPID dosimetry system developed in this work provides an accurate and reliable tool for routine output measurement and dosimetric verification of electron beam therapy. Coupled with its portability and ease of use, the proposed system promises to replace the current film-based approach for fast and reliable assessment of small and irregular electron field dosimetry.

Use of electronic portal imaging devices for electron treatment verification

This study aims to help broaden the use of electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs) for pre-treatment patient positioning verification, from photon-beam radiotherapy to photon- and electron-beam radiotherapy, by proposing and testing a method for acquiring clinically-useful EPID images of patient anatomy using electron beams, with a view to enabling and encouraging further research in this area. EPID images used in this study were acquired using all available beams from a linac configured to deliver electron beams with nominal energies of 6, 9, 12, 16 and 20 MeV, as well as photon beams with nominal energies of 6 and 10 MV. A widely-available heterogeneous, approximately-humanoid, thorax phantom was used, to provide an indication of the contrast and noise produced when imaging different types of tissue with comparatively realistic thicknesses. The acquired images were automatically calibrated, corrected for the effects of variations in the sensitivity of individual photodiodes, using a flood field image. For electron beam imaging, flood field EPID calibration images were acquired with and without the placement of blocks of water-equivalent plastic (with thicknesses approximately equal to the practical range of electrons in the plastic) placed upstream of the EPID, to filter out the primary electron beam, leaving only the bremsstrahlung photon signal. While the electron beam images acquired using a standard (unfiltered) flood field calibration were observed to be noisy and difficult to interpret, the electron beam images acquired using the filtered flood field calibration showed tissues and bony anatomy with levels of contrast and noise that were similar to the contrast and noise levels seen in the clinically acceptable photon beam EPID images. The best electron beam imaging results (highest contrast, signal-to-noise and contrast-to-noise ratios) were achieved when the images were acquired using the higher energy electron beams (16 and 20 MeV) when the EPID was calibrated using an intermediate (12 MeV) electron beam energy. These results demonstrate the feasibility of acquiring clinically-useful EPID images of patient anatomy using electron beams and suggest important avenues for future investigation, thus enabling and encouraging further research in this area. There is manifest potential for the EPID imaging method proposed in this work to lead to the clinical use of electron beam imaging for geometric verification of electron treatments in the future.

Image quality improvements of electronic portal imaging devices by multi-level gain calibration and temperature correction

Amorphous silicon (aSi:H) flat panel detectors are prevalent in radiotherapy for megavoltage imaging tasks. Any clinical and dosimetrical application requires a well-defined dose response of the system to achieve meaningful results. Due to radiation damages, panels deteriorate and the linearity of pixel response to dose as well as the stability with regard to changing operating temperatures get worse with time. Using a single level gain correction can lead to an error of about 23% when irradiating a flood field image with 100 MU min(-1) on an old detector. A multi-level gain (MLG) correction is introduced, emending the nonlinearities and subpanel-related artifacts caused by insufficient radiation hardness of amplifiers in the read-out electronics. With rising temperature, offset values typically increase (up to 300 gray values) while the response at higher dose values per frame remain constant for a majority of pixels. To account for temperature-related image artifacts, two additional temperature correction methods have been developed. MLG in combination with temperature corrections can re-establish the aSi:H image quality to the performance required by reliable medical verification tools. Furthermore, the life span and recalibration intervals of these costly devices can be prolonged decisively.

Quality assurance of electron beams using a Varian electronic portal imaging device

The feasibility of utilizing an electronic portal imaging device (EPID) for the quality assurance of electron beams was investigated. This work was conducted on a Varian 2100iX machine equipped with an amorphous silicon (aS1000) portal imager. The linearity of the imager pixel response as a function of exposed dose was first confirmed. The short-term reproducibility of the EPID response to electron beams was verified. Low (6 MeV), medium (12 MeV) and high (20 MeV) energies were tested, each along with small (6 × 6 cm(2)), medium (10 × 10 cm(2)) and large (20 × 20 cm(2)) applicators. Acquired EPID images were analyzed using an in-house MATLAB code for radiation field size, penumbra, symmetry and flatness. Field sizes and penumbra values agreed with those from film dosimetry to within 1 mm. Field symmetry and flatness constancies were measured over a period of three weeks. The results indicate that EPID can be used for routine quality assurance of electron beams.

Feasibility study of patient positioning verification in electron beam radiotherapy with an electronic portal imaging device (EPID)

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the feasibility of verification and documentation in electron beam radiotherapy using the photon contamination detected with an electronic portal imaging device. For investigation of electron beam verification with an EPID, the portal images are acquired irradiating two different tissue equivalent phantoms at different electron energies. Measurements were performed on an Elekta SL 25 linear accelerator with an amorphous-Si electronic portal imaging device (EPID: iViewGT, Elekta Oncology Systems, Crawley, UK). As a measure of EPID image quality contrast (CR) and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) are determined. For characterisation of the imaging of the EPID RW3 slabs and a Gammex 467 phantom with different material inserts are used. With increasing electron energy the intensity of photon contamination increases, yielding an increasing signal-to-noise ratio, but images are showing a decreasing contrast. As the signal-to-noise ratio saturates with increasing dose a minimum of 50 MUs is recommended. Even image quality depends on electron energy and diameter of the patient, the acquired results are mostly sufficient to assess the accuracy of beam positioning. In general, the online EPID acquisition has been demonstrated to be an effective electron beam verification and documentation method. The results are showing that this procedure can be recommended to be routinely and reliably done in patient treatment with electron beams.

Evaluation of relative transmitted dose for a step and shoot head and neck intensity modulated radiation therapy using a scanning liquid ionization chamber electronic portal imaging device

The dose delivery verification for a head and neck static intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) case using a scanning liquid ionization chamber electronic portal imaging device (SLIC-EPID) was investigated. Acquired electronic portal images were firstly converted into transmitted dose maps using an in-house developed method. The dose distributions were then compared with those calculated in a virtual EPID using the Pinnacle³ treatment planning system (TPS). Using gamma evaluation with the ΔD_max and DTA criteria of 3%/2.54 mm, an excellent agreement was observed between transmitted dose measured using SLIC-EPID and that calculated by TPS (gamma score approximately 95%) for large MLC fields. In contrast, for several small subfields, due to SLIC-EPID image blurring, significant disagreement was found in the gamma results. Differences between EPID and TPS dose maps were also observed for several parts of the radiation subfields, when the radiation beam passed through air on the outside of tissue. The transmitted dose distributions measured using portal imagers such as SLIC-EPID can be used to verify the dose delivery to a patient. However, several aspects such as accurate calibration procedure and imager response under different conditions should be taken into the consideration. In addition, SLIC-EPID image blurring is another important issue, which should be considered if the SLIC-EPID is used for clinical dosimetry verification.

QA of dynamic MLC based on EPID portal dosimetry

PURPOSE

Dynamic delivery of intensity modulated beams (dIMRT) requires not only accurate verification of leaf positioning but also a control on the speed of motion. The latter is a parameter that has a major impact on the dose delivered to the patient. Time consumed in quality assurance (QA) procedures is an issue of relevance in any radiotherapy department. Electronic portal imaging dosimetry (EPID) can be very efficient for routine tests. The purpose of this work is to investigate the ability of our EPID for detecting small errors in leaf positioning, and to present our daily QA procedures for dIMRT based on EPID.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A Varian 2100 CD Clinac equipped with an 80 leaf Millennium MLC and with amorphous silicon based EPID (aS500, Varian) is used. The daily QA program consists in performing: Stability check of the EPID signal, Garden fence test, Sweeping slit test, and Leaf speed test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The EPID system exhibits good long term reproducibility. The mean portal dose at the centre of a 10 × 10 cm(2) static field was 1.002 ± 0.004 (range 1.013-0.995) for the period evaluated of 47 weeks. Garden fence test shows that leaf position errors of up to 0.2 mm can be detected. With the Sweeping slit test we are able to detect small deviations on the gap width and errors of individual leaves of 0.5 and 0.2 mm. With the Leaf speed test problems due to motor fatigue or friction between leaves can be detected.

CONCLUSIONS

This set of tests takes no longer than 5 min in the linac treatment room. With EPID dosimetry, a consistent daily QA program can be applied, giving complete information about positioning/speed MLC.