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Branstetter BK, Sills JM. Mechanisms of auditory masking in marine mammals. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:1029-1047. [PMID: 36018474 PMCID: PMC9617968 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01671-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Anthropogenic noise is an increasing threat to marine mammals that rely on sound for communication, navigation, detecting prey and predators, and finding mates. Auditory masking is one consequence of anthropogenic noise, the study of which is approached from multiple disciplines including field investigations of animal behavior, noise characterization from in-situ recordings, computational modeling of communication space, and hearing experiments conducted in the laboratory. This paper focuses on laboratory hearing experiments applying psychophysical methods, with an emphasis on the mechanisms that govern auditory masking. Topics include tone detection in simple, complex, and natural noise; mechanisms for comodulation masking release and other forms of release from masking; the role of temporal resolution in auditory masking; and energetic vs informational masking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian K Branstetter
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, #204, San Diego, CA, 92106, USA.
| | - Jillian M Sills
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, USA
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2
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Guan S, Brookens T, Miner R. Acoustic characteristics from an in-water down-the-hole pile drilling activity. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2022; 151:310. [PMID: 35105028 DOI: 10.1121/10.0009272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Sound generated by pile installation using a down-the-hole (DTH) hammer is not well documented and differs in character from sound generated by conventional impact and vibratory pile driving. This paper describes underwater acoustic characteristics from DTH pile drilling during the installation of 0.84-m shafts within 1.22-m steel piles in Ketchikan, Alaska. The median single-strike sound exposure levels were 138 and 142 dB re 1 μPa2s at 10 m for each of the two piles, with cumulative sound exposure levels of 185 and 193 dB re 1 μPa2s at 10 m, respectively. The sound levels measured at Ketchikan were significantly lower than previous studies, and the sound was determined to be non-impulsive in this study as compared to impulsive in previous studies. These differences likely result from the DTH hammer not making direct contact with the pile, as had been the case in previous studies. Therefore, we suggest using the term DTH pile drilling to distinguish from DTH pile driving when the hammer strikes the pile. Further research is needed to investigate DTH piling techniques and associated sound-generating mechanisms and to differentiate the various types of sound emitted, which has important implications for the underwater sound regulatory community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane Guan
- Division of Environmental Sciences, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Sterling, Virginia 20166, USA
| | | | - Robert Miner
- Robert Miner Dynamic Testing of Alaska Inc., Manchester, Washington 98353, USA
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Zou Z, Zhang L. Enhancing low-frequency water-column acoustic reflections in marine multichannel seismic data for seismic oceanography. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2021; 150:3852. [PMID: 34852577 DOI: 10.1121/10.0007278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Reflections of low-frequency, broadband airgun signals from ocean water columns have long been collected in modern marine seismic surveys. However, they were barely examined because of their weak amplitude (following from low acoustic impedance contrast in water columns) and the lack of application interests. Nevertheless, in the past decades, a new cross-discipline "seismic oceanography" has developed the interest to use these water-column reflection signals to image the ocean structures. Motivated by seismic oceanography applications, we examined the acoustic multipath structure of marine seismic survey data with a focus on water-column reflections, and developed a two-step matched filtering approach to enhance water-column reflection and suppress the unwanted bubble waves. The approach was applied to process data collected from the Gulf of Mexico and led to an improvement in imaging mesoscale ocean structures when compared with the traditional matched filtering approach. For the specific data we examined, the results reveal a 11.3-dB improvement of signal-to-noise ratio by removing the noise and a 8-dB improvement of signal-to-reverberation ratio by suppressing bubble waves, while not affecting the information of ocean structures embedded in the signals. This study gains insights into features of water-column acoustic reflections and provides better tools for acoustic imaging of mesoscale ocean structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheguang Zou
- National Center for Physical Acoustics, and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Mississippi, 145 Hill Drive, University, Mississippi 38677, USA
| | - Likun Zhang
- National Center for Physical Acoustics, and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Mississippi, 145 Hill Drive, University, Mississippi 38677, USA
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von Benda-Beckmann AM, Isojunno S, Zandvliet M, Ainslie MA, Wensveen PJ, Tyack PL, Kvadsheim PH, Lam FPA, Miller PJO. Modeling potential masking of echolocating sperm whales exposed to continuous 1-2 kHz naval sonar. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2021; 149:2908. [PMID: 33940877 DOI: 10.1121/10.0004769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Modern active sonar systems can (almost) continuously transmit and receive sound, which can lead to more masking of important sounds for marine mammals than conventional pulsed sonar systems transmitting at a much lower duty cycle. This study investigated the potential of 1-2 kHz active sonar to mask echolocation-based foraging of sperm whales by modeling their echolocation detection process. Continuous masking for an echolocating sperm whale facing a sonar was predicted for sonar sound pressure levels of 160 dB re 1 μPa2, with intermittent masking at levels of 120 dB re 1 μPa2, but model predictions strongly depended on the animal orientation, harmonic content of the sonar, click source level, and target strength of the prey. The masking model predicted lower masking potential of buzz clicks compared to regular clicks, even though the energy source level is much lower. For buzz clicks, the lower source level is compensated for by the reduced two-way propagation loss to nearby prey during buzzes. These results help to predict what types of behavioral changes could indicate masking in the wild. Several key knowledge gaps related to masking potential of sonar in echolocating odontocetes were identified that require further investigation to assess the significance of masking.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M von Benda-Beckmann
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), P.O. Box 96864, The Hague 2509 JG, The Netherlands
| | - S Isojunno
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - M Zandvliet
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), P.O. Box 96864, The Hague 2509 JG, The Netherlands
| | - M A Ainslie
- JASCO Applied Sciences (Deutschland) GmbH, Eschborn, Germany
| | - P J Wensveen
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Iceland, Askja, Sturlugata 7, 102 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - P L Tyack
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - P H Kvadsheim
- Sensor and Surveillance Systems, Norwegian Defense Research Establishment (FFI), NO-3191 Horten, Norway
| | - F P A Lam
- Acoustics and Sonar, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), P.O. Box 96864, The Hague 2509 JG, The Netherlands
| | - P J O Miller
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
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Pine MK, Nikolich K, Martin B, Morris C, Juanes F. Assessing auditory masking for management of underwater anthropogenic noise. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2020; 147:3408. [PMID: 32486818 DOI: 10.1121/10.0001218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Masking is often assessed by quantifying changes, due to increasing noise, to an animal's communication or listening range. While the methods used to measure communication or listening ranges are functionally similar if used for vocalizations, they differ in their approaches: communication range is focused on the sender's call, while the listening range is centered on the listener's ability to perceive any signal. How these two methods differ in their use and output is important for management recommendations. Therefore it was investigated how these two methods may alter the conclusions of masking assessments based on Atlantic cod calls in the presence of a commercial air gun array. The two methods diverged with increasing distance from the masking noise source with maximum effects lasting longer between air gun pulses in terms of communication range than listening range. Reductions in the cod's communication ranges were sensitive to fluctuations in the call's source level. That instability was not observed for the listening range. Overall, changes to the cod's communication range were more conservative but very sensitive to the call source level. A high level of confidence in the call is therefore required, while confidence in the receiver's audiogram and soundscape is required for the listening range method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew K Pine
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Katrina Nikolich
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Bruce Martin
- JASCO Applied Sciences, 202-32 Troop Avenue, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B3B 1Z1, Canada
| | - Corey Morris
- Science Branch, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, P.O. 5667, Saint John's, Newfoundland A1C 5X1, Canada
| | - Francis Juanes
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
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Khodabandeloo B, Landrø M. Acoustically induced cavity cloud generated by air-gun arrays-Comparing video recordings and acoustic data to modeling. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2018; 143:3383. [PMID: 29960503 DOI: 10.1121/1.5040490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
For seismic air-gun arrays, ghost cavitation is assumed to be one of the main mechanisms for high-frequency signal generation. Ghost cavitation signals are weak for seismic frequencies (<300 Hz) and do not contribute to seismic reflection profiling. In the current experiment, the ghost cavity cloud is monitored by a high-speed video camera using 120 frames per second. This is, as far as the authors know, the first convincing photographic evidence of ghost-induced cavitation. In addition to video recording, acoustic signals were recorded with a sampling rate of 312.5 kHz using broadband hydrophones suspended 17 m below the array. The pressure drop around the source array is estimated using air-gun modeling followed by a phenomenological modeling of the growth and collapse of each vapor cavity. The cumulative effect of cavity collapses is modeled based on linear superposition of the acoustic signals generated by individual cavities. The simulated acoustic ghost cavitation signal and the corresponding cavity cloud show good agreement with the field data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babak Khodabandeloo
- Department of Geoscience and Petroleum, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Martin Landrø
- Department of Electronic Systems, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
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Martin SB, Matthews MNR, MacDonnell JT, Bröker K. Characteristics of seismic survey pulses and the ambient soundscape in Baffin Bay and Melville Bay, West Greenland. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2017; 142:3331. [PMID: 29289080 DOI: 10.1121/1.5014049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In 2012 a seismic survey campaign involving four vessels was conducted in Baffin Bay, West Greenland. Long-distance (150 km) pre-survey acoustic modeling was performed in accordance with regulatory requirements. Four acoustic recorders, three with hydrophones at 100, 200, and 400 m depths, measured ambient and anthropogenic sound during the survey. Additional recordings without the surveys were made from September 2013 to September 2014. The results show that (1) the soundscape of Baffin Bay is typical for open ocean environments and Melville Bay's soundscape is dominated by glacial ice noise; (2) there are distinct multipath arrivals of seismic pulses 40 km from the array; (3) seismic sound levels vary little as a function of depth; (4) high fidelity pre-survey acoustic propagation modeling produced reliable results; (5) the daily SEL did not exceed regulatory thresholds and were different using Southall, Bowles, Ellison, Finneran, Gentry, Greene, Kastak, Ketten, Miller, Nachtigall, Richardson, Thomas, and Tyack [(2007) Aquat. Mamm. 33, 411-521] or NOAA weightings [National Marine Fisheries Service (2016). NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-55, p. 178]; (6) fluctuations of SPL with range were better described by additive models than linear regression; and (7) the survey increased the 1-min SPL by 28 dB, with most of the energy below 100 Hz; energy in the 16 000 Hz octave band was 20 dB above the ambient background 6 km from the source.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Bruce Martin
- JASCO Applied Sciences (Canada) Ltd., 32 Troop Avenue, Suite 202, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B3B 1Z1, Canada
| | - Marie-Noël R Matthews
- JASCO Applied Sciences (Canada) Ltd., 32 Troop Avenue, Suite 202, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B3B 1Z1, Canada
| | - Jeff T MacDonnell
- JASCO Applied Sciences (Canada) Ltd., 32 Troop Avenue, Suite 202, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B3B 1Z1, Canada
| | - Koen Bröker
- Shell Global Solutions International B.V., Lange Kleiweg 40, 2288GK Rijswijk, The Netherlands
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Sills JM, Southall BL, Reichmuth C. The influence of temporally varying noise from seismic air guns on the detection of underwater sounds by seals. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2017; 141:996. [PMID: 28253692 DOI: 10.1121/1.4976079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Standard audiometric data are often applied to predict how noise influences hearing. With regard to auditory masking, critical ratios-obtained using tonal signals and flat-spectrum maskers-can be combined with noise spectral density levels derived from 1/3-octave band levels to predict signal amplitudes required for detection. However, the efficacy of this conventional model of masking may vary based on features of the signal and noise in question. The ability of resource managers to quantify masking from intermittent seismic noise is relevant due to widespread geophysical exploration. To address this, spotted and ringed seals with previously measured critical ratios were trained to detect low-frequency tonal signals within seismic pulses recorded 1 and 30 km from an operational air gun array. The conventional model of masking accurately predicted the extent of masking only in certain cases. When noise amplitude varied significantly in time, the results suggested that detection was driven by higher signal-to-noise ratios within time windows shorter than the full signal duration. This study evaluates when it is appropriate to use average noise levels and critical ratios to predict auditory masking experienced by marine mammals, and suggests how masking models can be improved by incorporating time-based analyses of signals and noise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian M Sills
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, 115 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA
| | - Brandon L Southall
- Southall Environmental Associates (SEA), Incorporated, 9099 Soquel Drive, Suite 8, Aptos, California 95003, USA
| | - Colleen Reichmuth
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California Santa Cruz, 115 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA
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Reichmuth C, Ghoul A, Sills JM, Rouse A, Southall BL. Low-frequency temporary threshold shift not observed in spotted or ringed seals exposed to single air gun impulses. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2016; 140:2646. [PMID: 27794299 DOI: 10.1121/1.4964470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Underwater hearing thresholds were measured at 100 Hz in trained spotted (Phoca largha) and ringed seals (Pusa hispida) before and immediately following voluntary exposure to impulsive noise from a seismic air gun. Auditory responses were determined from psychoacoustic data and behavioral responses were scored from video recordings. Four successive exposure conditions of increasing level were tested, with received unweighted sound exposure levels from 165 to 181 dB re 1 μPa2 s and peak-to-peak sound pressures from 190 to 207 dB re 1 μPa. There was no evidence that these single seismic exposures altered hearing-including in the highest exposure condition, which matched previous predictions of temporary threshold shift (TTS) onset. Following training at low exposure levels, relatively mild behavioral responses were observed for higher exposure levels. This demonstrates that individuals can learn to tolerate loud, impulsive sounds, but does not necessarily imply that similar sounds would not elicit stronger behavioral responses in wild seals. The absence of observed TTS confirms that regulatory guidelines (based on M-weighting) for single impulse noise exposures are conservative for seals. However, additional studies using multiple impulses and/or higher exposure levels are needed to quantify exposure conditions that do produce measurable changes in hearing sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen Reichmuth
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA
| | - Asila Ghoul
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA
| | - Jillian M Sills
- Institute of Marine Sciences, Long Marine Laboratory, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA
| | - Andrew Rouse
- Southall Environmental Associates (SEA), Incorporated, 9099 Soquel Drive, Suite 8, Aptos, California 95003, USA
| | - Brandon L Southall
- Southall Environmental Associates (SEA), Incorporated, 9099 Soquel Drive, Suite 8, Aptos, California 95003, USA
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